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UCW Biol 100

University of Canada West
Biology 100 Lab Manual (1st ed.)

Fall 2024

Authors
Dr. Trao Lenei, University of Canada West
Prof Dr. Regan Zhang, University of Canada West
Prof Dr. Zahra Moradi, University of Canada West
Prof Dr. Mitra Panahi, University of Canada West
Prof Dr. Sina Mahabadi, University of Canada West
Prof Dr. Prashant Kumar, University of Canada West

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UCW Biol 100

All graphics were created by the biology team of University of Canada West.

Copyright Notice © [2024] University Canada West. All Rights Reserved. This
instructional content is the property of University Canada West and is protected under
the Canadian Copyright Act. This content is shared in UCW Wise under the terms of a
UCW Library License Agreement.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
1. About the Biology Lab………………………………………………….........4
2. Lab regulations:
i.

Before attending Lab………………………………………………. 5

ii.

Laboratory Use…………………………………………………........ 5

iii.

Laboratory Safety…………………………………………………... 7

iv.

Lab Attendance Policy………………………………………………11

v.

Student Rights and Responsibilities…………………………………..11

3. Experiment 1: Microscope………………………………………………….15
i.

Test your knowledge…………………………………………..........31

4. Experiment 2: DNA and Cell structures (plants, animals) ………………36
i.

Test your knowledge………………………………………………..58

5. Experiment 3: The Digestive system and Nutrition………………………60
i.

Digestive system…………………………………………………….61
Test your knowledge………………………………………………..65

ii.

Nutrition………………………………………………………………68
Test your knowledge ……………………………………………….74

6. References…………………………………………………………………..76

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BIOLOGY

ABOUT
BIOLOGY LAB

Dear Students,

Welcome to the Biology lab at University of Canada West. The biology lab will be
conducted by your professor with the help of the Laboratory technicians.
This lab manual will provide an understanding about the biology concepts. It will also
ensure that the students apply the theoretical knowledge into practice, giving you
hands-on experience, which will develop your laboratory skills.

Thank you,
Biology Team

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LAB REGULATIONS
(I)

Before attending Lab

Be ready: Make sure you read the experiments that will be conducted on the day of your
lab as questions will be asked to the students. The introductory information is also
present in the manual. So, we request students to go through the lab manual before
coming for lab class.

(II)

Laboratory Use

Students must behave respectfully towards all individuals in the lab and follow any
instructions given by Lab Instructors and Lab Technicians.
*Failure to comply with these regulations may result in expulsion from the lab*

Figure 1. Science Lab

a) The lab must be always kept clean. You are responsible for your equipment and
glassware and the cleaning of these, plus cleaning of benches or tables used in
the lab.
b) Garbage must be placed in the garbage cans in the labs and not left on benches
or in the drawers or sinks.

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c) Tampering with equipment and with experiments in progress is prohibited.
Equipment is expensive and easily broken. Experiments of other students may
be destroyed by tampering.
d) Glass and other hazardous waste material must be disposed of in the
appropriate specialized containers.

e) Microscopes must be returned to their proper location.

Figure 2. Microscope storage area

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(III)

Laboratory Safety

It is your responsibility to ensure that you take adequate precautions to protect your
health while in the laboratory. You should adhere to the following guidelines:
➢ Always work in a well-ventilated area and use a fume hood when volatile
chemicals are used.

➢ Only use equipment free of flaws.
➢ When to contact the instructor

If an accident occurs (no
matter how minor)
contact the instructor
immediately for
appropriate first aid.

DO
NOT

If a breakage or spill
occurs, contact the
instructor immediately
for advice on safe clean
up.

Do not smoke, eat or drink in the laboratory

Never chew gum, apply cosmetics (including lip balm),
or handle contact lenses in the laboratory.
Treat all chemicals and specimens as potentially
hazardous: do not touch, smell, or taste any chemicals.
Avoid touching your eyes, mouth, face, etc., while
working in the laboratory, and avoid breathing harmful
vapors.
Do not allow flammable liquids and gases near a flame
or spark.
To put chemical in pipette use pumps or pipettors (do not
use your mouth)

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➢ When working with hazardous materials, bear the following in mind:

Figure 3. Hazards symbol (Government of Canada, 2024)

o Carefully read the labels of all chemicals that you are working with.
o Wear appropriate clothing. Lab coats are recommended.
o Long hair and jewelry should be tied back to prevent contamination or
ignition.
o Safety glasses and gloves are available in the laboratory.
o Closed-toed shoes are required and should be low heeled.
o No wearing shorts (boys and girls) and short dresses in the lab.
o Contact lenses should be removed prior to working in the presence of
harmful vapors, which can concentrate behind the lenses.
o Eye contamination requires 15 minutes of washing with the eye bath

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turned to a comfortable temperature. Contact lenses should be
removed prior to eye washing unless this involves a significant delay.
o If clothing catches fire, it should be doused with water and/or wrapped
in a coat or blanket. DO NOT use a CO2 fire extinguisher on a human,
as severe freezing damage may result (e.g., blindness).
o Contaminated clothing should be removed, with care to avoid the eye.
o If you touch a hazardous substance, you should immediately keep your
hands under running water. Have your partner contact the instructor.
o When removing chemicals to temporary containers, place labels on the
new containers first, and never return chemicals to stock bottles.
o Cover spilled liquids immediately with paper towels. Spilled material
contaminated with biohazardous microorganisms should be saturated
with 1% bleach solution for 30 minutes.
➢ If there is a fire:
o Familiarize yourself with the location of “Exit” doors and the location of
safety eyewashes and shower. Be ready to assist your partner should
a chemical spill or splash occur.
o If clothing catches fire, it should be doused with water and/or wrapped
in a coat or blanket. DO NOT use a CO2 fire extinguisher on a human,
as severe freezing damage may result (e.g. blindness).

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o

Do not take elevators, leave the area quickly, do not block the exits
area.

Wash hands regularly and before
leaving the lab with soap. It is
prudent to shut off the taps with
paper towels after drying your
hands.

Dispose of waste
chemicals and other
materials in the proper
manner as instructed. Do
not pour chemicals down
the sink unless you are
told to do so.

Keep your work space
uncluttered to avoid
spillage and fire.

Put the glasswares
in the drying rack to
dry
After the
Laboratory
procedure

Drying rack

Figure 4. Cleaning and drying rack area

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(IV)
a.

Lab Attendance Policy

Any lab missed, without a valid reason will receive a mark of zero for that
lab and its related assignments and/or quizzes.

b.

If you have a valid reason for missing a lab it is your responsibility to contact
your lab instructor that day if you want the absence excused.

c.

Be on time: Do not be late for the lab.

(V)

Student Rights and Responsibilities

Students have the responsibility to:
a. Conduct themselves in a manner that does not harm or threaten to harm
another person’s dignity, physical or mental wellbeing
b. Contribute to and sustain an inclusive environment that values civility,
honesty, fairness, respect for others
c. Respect the ideas and perspectives of others even when not in agreement with
those ideas and perspectives
d. Respect others personal information and privacy and treat disciplinary
actions as confidential
e. Obey public laws
f. Report acts of rights violations where there is a reasonable and/or expected
threat to the community, or where harm (emotional or physical) has been
witnessed.
g. Not disrupt or interfere with UCW activities including classes and programs.
h. Respect the property of UCW and of others

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i.

Become fully aware of, and comply with, UCW policies and procedures.
Student Misconduct

10.2 Conduct which does not respect the rights and dignity of others and that
contravenes UCW’s mission, mandate, values and policies may be considered student
misconduct and therefore subject to the rules governing student misconduct.
10.3 The following is a non-exhaustive list that provides examples of misconduct that
may be addressed under Student misconduct policy (University of Canada west, 2011).
Conduct not specifically set out below may be subject to proceedings under this Policy.
Students shall not engage in the following conduct:
a. Physically, verbally, emotionally, or psychologically aggressive behavior directed
towards another member of the community and/or coercion and/or threats
towards students, staff, faculty, or other member of the UWC Community.
b. Regardless of the purpose or intent (including jokes), to engage or encourage
others to engage in behaviours or activities that harass any person or
discriminate against a person based on protected status such as race, ancestry,
place of origin, colour, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or
expression, marital status, family status, disability.
c. Impede or disrupt teaching, research, administration, disciplinary proceedings,
public service functions, or other authorized University functions.
Note:

10.4 The University will conduct a timely investigation into allegations of misconduct that
could, if substantiated, constitute a violation of this Policy. All investigations are
conducted in a fair and equitable manner, consistent with the principles of procedural

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fairness and natural justice and having regard to the nature and seriousness of the
conduct at issue.
10.5 When UCW determines that misconduct has occurred, the outcome of that process
will take into account all the circumstances of the misconduct and the circumstances of
the student engaging in the misconduct. The University recognized that, where
appropriate, an outcome that is educational, developmental or restorative, may be
preferable to, or imposed in conjunction with, a punitive outcome.
10.7 Disciplinary Sanctions and other measures applicable under this Policy include:
a. The student may be required to provide a verbal or written apology
b. The student may be required to make restitution in the form of payment of
costs, or compensation for loss, damage, or injury, or in the form of appropriate
service or material replacement.
c. The student may receive a verbal or written warning or letter of reprimand.
d. The student may be placed on non-academic probation for a specified period
of time
e. The student may lose privileges for a specified period of time, including
computer privileges, library access, or be prohibited from registering for a
particular course or program
f. The student may be prohibited for a specified period of time from having
access to all or any part of the campus, with or without conditions
g. The student may be removed from one or more courses for one or more terms
h. The student may be suspended with the loss of all academic privileges for a
specified period of time.

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i. The student may be subject to suspension, cancellation, or forfeiture of any
scholarships, bursaries or prizes
j. The student may forfeit payment for courses, registration, or other fees.
k. The student may be required to enter into a behavioural contract being a set of
behavioural expectations, terms, and conditions. Any breach of this contract
constitutes student misconduct that may result suspension or expulsion from
UCW.
l. The student may be suspended from the University for a specified period of
time
m. The student may be required to abide by a behavioural contract (signed) prior
to their return to campus.
n. The student may be denied admission or re-admission to the University for a
specified or indefinite period of time.
o. The student may be expelled from UCW by the President.
p. The student may receive a notation of academic discipline on the student's
record in the Student Information System, which will appear on the student's
Transcript of Academic Record.

For more information visit: https://www.ucanwest.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/UCW9014-Student-Rights-and-Responsibilities-Policy.pdf

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Experiment 1: Microscopes
Effective use of the microscope is a fundamental skill in biology. Microscopy is a
technique that is used in hospitals and in forensic labs, for scientists and students,
bacteriologists, and biologists so that they may view bacteria, plant and animal cells and
tissues, and various microorganisms.
You will be using the microscope throughout this course to view specimens and make
drawings of the specimens. This laboratory will show you how to use the microscope
and make labeled drawings following conventions used in biology.
I.

OBJECTIVES
•

To demonstrate skill in proper utilization of compound microscope.

•

Describe the function of each component of a compound microscope.

•

Demonstrate how to properly use a compound microscope to view a
specimen.

•

Define the concepts and explain the significance of magnification, resolution,
and working distance

II.

INTRODUCTION
Study of Light Compound microscope

Why is it called a light compound microscope?
-

Light because the microscope magnifies the images using light that passes from
the light source, filtered through condenser and lens, ultimately presenting a
bright illuminated field for observation by the eye.

-

Called as Compound because the microscope passes light through the specimen
through two different lenses which are ocular and objective lens.

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Use of compound microscope: It offers the capability to examine small organisms
with higher magnification using higher power objectives due to their shorter working
distance.
Parts of microscope:

Figure 5: Compound Microscope

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1. Eyepiece or ocular lens: Closest to the eyes through which it magnifies and
forms an image of the object to be viewed. The different magnifying power is
indicated by “X” e.g., 8X, 10X, 40X.
2. Diopter adjustment: Adjust the focus on one eyepiece to compensate for any
variation in vision between your two eyes.
3. Head: Supports the eyepiece (Ocular lens).
4. Nosepiece: Rotating disc to hold the objective lens
5. Arm: Connect the upper part of microscope to the base of the microscope and
functions as a handle.
6. Objective lens: The most important part of microscope which is closest to the
specimen. The function is to magnify the image of the specimen.
The power of the objective lens can range from 4X to 100X.
7. Stage: The stage is a mechanical system which is moveable to position the
specimen under the objective lens.
It acts as a supporting part to hold the slide.
8. Stage clips: Another part of mechanical stage which is a metal clip to hold the
slide in place on stage.
9. Coarse adjustment knob: To position the slide on the stage so that the object is
brought into focus. Not for the higher magnification (100X).
10. Fine adjustment knob: To make the image fine (sharp focus).
11. Condenser: Concentrates the light (moving up and down to increase or
decrease the light) onto the specimen ensuring a clear and sharp image are
formed. A glass lens which is found below the stage.

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12. Iris Diaphragm: It is found below the condenser. Controls the amount of light by
opening and closing to reach the specimen.
13. Illumination: A light source that direct the light reaching to the specimen through
the condenser
14. Brightness adjustment knob: A knob which controls the intensity of light
coming from the light source.
15. Base: A supporting part of microscope.
Exercise 1: Familiarize yourself with all parts of the microscope and label the
microscope:

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III.

LET’S START…………...

Steps and Precautions while using microscope
Carrying the microscope:
-

Always carry the microscope in an upright position

(not tilted) using two hands.
-

One hand should hold the microscope’s arm, and

the other hand should support the base.

Turn on the light and adjust the light using brightness illumination.
Set it down away from the edge of the table.

Put the slide on the mechanical stage, making sure the slide is secure with the stage
clip.
Make sure you use the low power objective lens first
With the help of stage control knob adjust the position of the specimen in the center of
the light path.

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Using the coarse focus knob, elevate the height of the stage until it reaches to its
maximum level. Avoid excessive pressure beyond its point to prevent damaging the
microscope.
*Working distance*
Distance between the lens and the slide on the stage.
As magnification increases the working distance decreases.

Working distance
Slowly using the coarse focus knob, the objective is to be raised while looking through
the ocular lens till the image is seen. Using the fine focus knob, adjust the focus till
the image is clear and sharp. Your microscope is Parfocal – once the object is in
focus in lower objective, it should be almost in focus when you switch to higher power.
Improving the image, you can do by adjusting the amount of light using the condenser
and diaphragm.
After focusing the specimen on the low objective, adjust it to the center. Once done,
rotate the nosepiece to next higher objective. Do the necessary adjustment to get a
fine and clear image. Make sure you use fine adjustment knob only to prevent
smashing of the slide under the higher magnification.

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IV.

MICROSCOPE LAB 2: COUNTING & MEASUREMENT

Objective
• To demonstrate quantification of cells and tissues using the microscope.
Introduction
The microscope can help visualize biological structures at the cell and tissue
levels. It is also an essential tool for measurements. Biologists can use the microscope
to visually count and measure the sizes of cells and microscopic structures. Thus, these
skills are often used at the end of an experiment to collect results and can be used
across many fields such as microbiology, ecology, medicine, and forensic science. By
counting and measuring using a microscope, we can answer questions such as “how
quickly are cells growing?” and “what is the measurable difference between healthy and
diseased tissues?” In this lab, we will learn these skills via their basic applications in the
field of histology, which is the study of biological tissues using the microscope.
A microscope slide is often made for a specimen, which was life that has been
specifically prepared for visualizing using the microscope. The slides we use in this lab
are of cells and tissues that are not alive but captured at a moment in time. But how can
we see inside a tissue, at the microscopic scale? Histology is a discipline in biology and
medicine that uses extremely thin sections of tissues such that they can be mounted on
a microscope slide. These specimens were cut from a tissue that was frozen in time, so
that we may see it under the microscope as if it's still in its living state. The cut is very
thin that the thickness is less than a human cell.
To help us identify what we are looking at, histology also uses dyes to stain the
specimen with colours. The stained slide often allow us to see beautiful images under

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the microscope, such as the examples below. The most commonly used dyes are
hematoxylin and eosin. The combination of these two dyes is abbreviated as the H&E
stain, where the hematoxylin stains cell nuclei a purplish blue, and eosin stains the
connective tissue and cytoplasm pink, with other structures taking on different shades,
hues, and combinations of these colors. The H&E stain is the most popular staining
method in histology and medical diagnosis laboratories. In this lab we will examine
slides made with H&E stain to identify cells inside tissues.
Special stains that use additional dyes can produce different colours and
highlight certain structures. In this lab, we will examine slides made with one special
stain called the Masson’s Trichrome stain. This is a stain that is particularly good at
visualizing muscle tissues. It stains cell nuclei dark purplish blue, cytoplasm pink and
red, connective tissue blue.

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Identify a Structure
Using the procedure you learned from the introductory lab, examine a slide
labelled with H&E or MT, until you find a recognizable structure. Below are some
examples. Zoom in by going to 40X objective lens magnification.

V.

DETERMINING THE TOTAL MAGNIFICATION

Total magnification = Ocular lens magnification X Objective lens magnification
The lens magnification is printed on the sides of the lens.
Example:
If you are using 10X ocular lens and objective lens of 40X
Total magnification will be 10 X 40= 400 which means the image is 400 times
larger.
We will not be using the 100X (oil immersion) magnification in this class.
While focusing the specimen, keep filling the following table:
Table 1: Total Magnification
Lens
Low
Medium

Ocular lens

Objective lens

Total magnification

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High
Oil immersion

VI.

MEASURING THE FIELD OF VIEW

Why do we determine the diameter of the field of view of the microscope?
= To measure the size of a specimen.
When you view through the eye piece, the circular area or the diameter of the circle
visible is the field of view of the microscope. As you increase the magnification, the
field of view gets smaller, therefore there is an inverse relationship seen between the
field of view and the magnification.
If the magnification gets greater, the field of view decreases.

40X

Figure 6. Field of view
Table 2: Determining the field of view:
Ocular lens

Objective lens

Total magnification

Diameter of field of view

10X

4X

40X

0.45 mm

10X

10X

100X

0.18 mm

10X

40X

400X

0.045 mm

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VII.

ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF THE SPECIMEN IS POSSIBLE

Real length of the specimen= (Fraction of the field of view) x (diameter of the field)
Consider an example. Suppose the length of a single cell would fit 3 times across the
field diameter at high power. The field diameter was 0.45 mm, then the actual size
would be

Field Diameter= 0.45

Size of cell = 1/3 x 0.45= 0.15 mm

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Counting and Density
The histological stains provide with us a clear indication of a nucleus on the slide, which
is stained very dark. We can easily count how many nuclei are in a field of view.
Now that we know the diameter of the field of view, we can also calculate the area of
the field of view.
Area = πd2
4
Counting the number of nuclei or cells within a field of view, we can conclude the
density of this tissue.
Density = number of cells or nuclei
Area
For this activity, find two areas of interest, from the same slide or different slides. Draw
them. Then, count and calculate the density of the cells or nuclei in this tissue.
VIII.

OBSERVING SPECIMEN ON THE SLIDE

Take three of the slides from the slide box that you will be viewing under the
microscope. The important aspect of doing this experiment is to develop the skill of
using the microscope, not identifying the parts of the specimen.
Follow the steps of viewing the specimen under the microscope and once you have
focused on the highest magnification, draw the specimen that you can view in the circle
provided below. As studied, the circle represents the diameter i.e., the field of view of
the microscope. The image should not be perfect, but it should follow the following
instructions.

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Follow the instructions of drawing:
1. Use sharp pencils to draw the image (NO PEN)
2. The drawing should be smooth and continuous, no double lines allowed.
3. Label the drawing making sure the label lines are straight and parallel to each
other.
4. The label lines should be only on one straight, no overlapping of lines.
5. No shading allowed instead you are allowed to stipple (use dots) or dashes (-) or
lines to show contrast.

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Exercise 2: Draw what you see.
Drawing:

Total magnification =
Field diameter

=

Calculations

=

Drawing:

Total magnification =
Field diameter

=

Calculations

=

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Exercise 3: Draw an area of interest. Count the number of cells or nuclei and
calculate the density.
Tissue type: _________________________

Student Name: _________________

Show your calculation here:
Final answer: Density=

cells or nuclei per mm2

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Exercise 4:
Student Name: ________________________________________________
Tissue type: ___________________________________________________

16 cm

Objective Lens Magnification: ______________
Total Magnification: _________________
Scale: 1 cm = _____________________ mm
Actual Length or Width (circle one): ______________________________________

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. What are the different types of microscopes?
=

2. If you are looking at a specimen from 10X to 40X and you lose focus, what should
be the step to get the focus back?
=

3. Fill the table with its function by appropriate part of the compound microscope.
Parts of microscope

Function

Nosepiece
Objective lens to first locate a specimen
Focuses light on the specimen
Fine focus knob
Control the amount of light passing through the
specimen

4. What are the 3 differences between compound microscope and electron
microscope?

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5. How will you correct the following:
a) The field of view is dark

b) My viewing field has a spot that remains the same even if I move the slide

c) I can't see anything under high power.

6. Which objective lens should be kept in focus after using the microscope?

7. How would you describe a microscope that stays in focus when the objective lens
is moved?

8. You must have noticed that as you increase the magnification, you need more light
or the object get dimmer, why?

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Multiple choice questions
Question 1
Many of the slides of tissues we looked at under the microscope were prepared using the
H&E stain. What does H stand for?
A. Histology
B. Hematoxylin
C. Hepatic portal vein
D. Hemaglobin
Question 2
What cell structure does H stain for (gives it colour)?
A. It stains the cell blue.
B. It stains the cell red.
C. It stains the connective tissue blue.
D. It stains the nucleus blue.
Question 3
Many of the slides of tissues we looked at under the microscope were prepared using the
H&E stain. What does E stand for?
A. Electric
B. Epidermis
C. Esophagus
D. Eosin

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Question 4
What cell structure does E stain for (gives it colour)?
A. It stains the connective tissue blue.
B. It stains the nucleus pink.
C. It stains the cytoplasm pink.
D. It stains the cell blue.
Question 5
Blood vessel under the microscope
The following image is a photo taken on a microscope, using the 40X objective lens. It is
a cross-sectional view of a blood vessel (centre left), prepared by a Masson's Trichrome
stain. The microscope camera printed the photo with a scale indicating 1cm = 25µm.

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What cells are in the middle of the blood vessel (area A)?
A. Red blood cells
B. Enterocytes
C. Muscle fibres
D. Neurons
Question 6
What is in the blue area around the blood vessel?
A. Epithelial tissue
B. Skeletal muscle
C. Capillary
D. Connective tissue
Question 7
A biologist wants to know how big is this blood vessel, so they measured the length of D,
as indicated by the arrows, which is an approximation of the diameter of the blood vessel.
Using a ruler on the photo, the biologist measured D as 10cm. What is the actual length
of D?
(Hint: use the scale information to find out the actual length.)
A. 0.25mm
B. 1mm
C. 0.1mm
D. 2.5mm

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Experiment 2: DNA and Cell Structure (Plant and
Animal)
I.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lab, you will learn:
•

General idea about DNA and identifying structures such as phosphate,
sugar and base.

•

Differences and similarities between plant cells and animal cells.

•

Comparing the structures and the functions of each organelle in plant
and animal cells.

II.

•

Describe the mechanisms of diffusion and osmosis.

•

Explain how isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions affect cells.

DNA
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid
A double helical structure is a molecule present in our body and located in the
nucleic cells of plants, animals, and fungi. The backbone of DNA composed
of phosphate, sugar and four bases which are Adenine (A), Cytosine (C),
Guanine (G), Thymine (T). The bases are paired as Adenine with thymine
and Cytosine with guanine, these pairing cannot be changed.
What makes you is the DNA which has all the information such as the color of
eye, height, ethnicity.

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Exercise 1: Label the following:

A=
C=

G=

P=

T=

Figure 7. DNA model
III.

ABOUT CELLS
All living beings are made of cells, and they are the smallest unit of life.
The cell theory:
1. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function of organisms.
2. All organisms are composed of cells.

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3. Because of its self-producing property, cells come from preexisting cells.
Living organisms exhibit a wide range of dimensions and forms from
millimeter to micrometer. Since you have studied the topic “Microscope”, you
must be aware by now that to study cells well, we need microscopes because
cells are small.
This lab will give you an experience to examine the animal cell model and
secondly, when you look at prepared slides, you can see how different kinds
of cells join up to make tissues, and how these tissues build up into organs.
Table 3: Cells are divided into Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells

Lack of membrane bound nucleus

Membrane bound nucleus and

and organelles

organelles are present

Smaller in size

Larger in size

Unicellular

Multicellular and some unicellular

Example: Bacteria, Blue green

Animal, Plant, Fungi

algae

In this lab we will learn about the eukaryotic cells which are animal and plant
cells.
Remember that all cells maintain a balance called homeostasis so that a body
can function normally. Cell membrane is the one that keeps the cell's internal
environment stable. It is a semipermeable membrane which regulates the
movement of materials inside and outside of the cell.

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IV.

CELL STRUCTURE
a) Animal cell
Exercise 2: Looking at the animal cell model, identify the organelles
and write their functions:

Cell membrane:

Nucleus:

Nuclear envelope:

Mitochondria:

Golgi apparatus:

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Rough Endoplasmic reticulum:

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum:

Ribosomes:

Cytoplasm:
The organelles missing in the model: The other cell organelles are a hair
like structure which are cilia and flagella which help the cell to move from
place to another. Both are similar in structure but their length and
functions different.
b) Plant cell
The three distinct features from the animal cells are cell walls,
chloroplasts, and central vacuoles.
Exercise 3: Write the functions of the following:
Cell wall:

Chloroplasts:

Central vacuoles:

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Exercise 4: Based on what you have studied so far, draw animal and
plant cell and label it:
Animal cell

Plant cell

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Exercise 3: Draw and label the different muscle cells provided along with their
functions, indicating the magnitude of the lens, and determining the total
magnification.
Cardiac muscle

Skeletal muscle

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V.

EXPERIMENT OF LIVING ANIMAL CELL
Cheek cell
Materials needed:
•

Glass slide

•

Cover slips

•

Methylene blue

•

Tissue

•

Plastic pipette or dropper

•

Toothpick/ cotton swab

Method:
-

Using cotton swab or toothpick gently swab the inner side of your
cheek.

-

Put a drop of Methylene blue on the slide with the help of dropper.

-

Smear the cotton swab or toothpick in the methylene blue on your slide
for 2-3 seconds to observe more cellular details. Dispose of the used
cotton swab or toothpick in the garbage.

-

We will use forceps to place our coverslip so while placing the
coverslip you must be very careful that there is no air bubble present
inside which will hinder your observation under the microscope. So
slowly place the coverslip and examine under the compound
microscope.

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Draw what you see:

What is the most prominent feature you observe in the center of cell stained
by methylene blue?
=
Why use Methylene blue in this experiment?
=

VI.

EXPERIMENT OF PLANT CELL
Onion cell
Materials needed:
•

Glass slide

•

Cover slips

•

Glycerin

•

Methylene blue

•

Plastic pipette or dropper

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•

Forceps

Method:
-

Cut onion into halves and then peel thin, transparent layer from the
inner surface of the onion bulb using forceps.

-

Put a drop of Methylene blue on a watch glass with the help of dropper
and place the peel in the methylene blue and wait for couple of
minutes to five minutes.

-

Take a glass slide and add glycerin to prevent drying out of specimen.

-

Take the peel from the methylene blue and place it on the glass slide.

-

We will use a forceps to place our coverslip so while placing the
coverslip you must be very careful that there is no air bubble present
inside which will hinder your observation under the microscope. So
slowly place the coverslip and examine under the compound
microscope.

Draw what you see:

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What is the shape of the onion peel under microscope?
=
To prevent drying of the onion peel what did we do?
=
VII.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD EXPERIMENT
Before you begin
Before working on this lab assignment, review all relevant lab slides on the
scientific method. Review the concepts of dependent and independent
variables by studying the examples at:
https://blog.prepscholar.com/independent-and-dependent-variables
For most of the questions in this assignment, there is more than one way to
answer a question; there is more than one correct answer! Each student may
have a different set of observations and theories. Don’t be afraid to express
your idea. Be as specific as you can in your answers. Writing general and
vague statements is a sign that you did not understand this lab.
You do not need to put your name on this assignment. You must upload this
document to our course while logged-in with your own account.
**Students will work in a group
Materials needed:
-

2 test tubes

-

2 leaves

-

Solution A

-

Solution B

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Procedure: DAY-1

- Label both test tubes with one of your names.
- Label one test tube “A”, the other one “B”.
- Bend one leaf.
- With the ends pointing up, insert the bent leaf into test
tube “A” as far as you can, until it is almost at the bottom of
the tube.
- Repeat with the other leaf using test tube “B”.

- Once you are ready, ask your instructor or lab technician
to add solution A to your tube “A” and solution B to your
tube “B”.
- Make sure the leaves are almost entirely submerged in
the solution. They should not be floating at the top of the
tube.

•

Are there any bubbles on your leaf? Are they big or small?

•

Count how many bubbles are attached to each leaf in each tube. Do
not include bubbles floating in or at the top of the tube. Record the
numbers in your results table under “Time 0 min”. If you don’t see any
bubbles, record “0”.

•

Count and record your numbers by yourself. Don’t copy your partner.

•

Place your tubes on the tube rack by the window.
Start a timer for 15 minutes.

Observe:
•

After waiting 15 minutes, are there more bubbles attached to the
leaves than before? Are the bubbles bigger?

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**Be careful not to disturb the bubbles!
•

Count the number of bubbles on each leaf in each tube. Do not include
bubbles that are floating in or at the top of the tube.

•

Record the numbers in your results table under “Time 15 min”.

Recording results:
•

Quantitative data – results that were measured in numbers.

•

Qualitative data – results that were not measured in numbers but
recorded as descriptions. For example:
•

Leaf in tube A was bigger than leaf in tube B.

•

Leaf at time 15 min has bigger air bubbles than at time 0 min.

•

The side facing the wall of the tube has more bubbles.

**Be as specific as possible!
Analysis:
•

Are there more bubbles at 15 minutes than at 0 minutes?
o Where do you think the bubbles come from?

•

Are the number of bubbles in each tube different? Which tube has
more bubbles?

•

Are your numbers different from your partner’s? Why?

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Table 4: Record your results from the week 3 lab experiment below.
Time

Time

0 min

15 min

Tube A

Tube B

Results Table: Number of air bubbles on the leaf at time 0 minutes and 15 minutes.

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In the space below, write down any descriptive observations, in point form. For
example, describe any differences in the size of air bubbles, between each time point
and between the two leaves: differences between yours and your partner’s numbers.
•

•

•

•

•

•

Day-2: How do plants breathe?
•

Show you results precisely and concisely depicting with the help of bar
or line graph or pie chart.
Example: Create your own axis labels, scale, bar drawings, and graph
title.

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1. What’s in the mystery solutions?
=
2. Analyze your data.
a. Where did the bubbles come from?
=

b. Why was there a difference between the number of bubbles formed in
tube A compared to tube B?
=

3. What about confounding factors?
=

Look at your qualitative data from last week.

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What happened in our lab?
In this lab, we did an experiment involving leaves in a test tube. The following questions
require you to review the lecture “the Cell”, steps of our experiment from the lab slides,
and the results that you have recorded.
1) In ONE sentence, describe what you observed after leaving the tubes by the window
for 15 minutes. (1 mark)

2) In the space below, explain where you think the bubbles came from. (1 mark)

3) Why was there a difference between the number of bubbles formed in tube A
compared to tube B? (3 mark)

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Make a hypothesis.
Pretend you are a plant researcher who performed the experiment we did in class.
Before completing the following questions, think about the outcome of the experiment.
Why would you, as a plant researcher, want to do this experiment? Then, think
backwards to create a hypothesis for this experiment.
4) As a plant researcher, what research question are you trying to answer using this
experiment? Write ONE sentence, in the form of a question. (1 mark)

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5) Write your hypothesis, in ONE sentence. (1 mark)

6) Write the null hypothesis, in ONE sentence. (1 mark)

7) What is the dependent variable? (1 mark)
•

8) What is the independent variable? (1 mark)
•

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9) Does the result you collected in class support your hypothesis? Answer “yes” or “no”,
then explain why. (4 marks)

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Design a better experiment.
The experiment we did in class was very primitive and might not have fully tested your
hypothesis. Before answering the following questions, think critically about what we did
in this experiment. Was it perfect? Did we follow the best practices in the scientific
method? Could we have done it differently?
10) Identify at least FIVE confounding factors in our experiment. Write them down in a
list. You may have more than five. (2 marks)
•

11) Could we have prevented the above confounding factors? Identify ONE way you
could eliminate some of the confounding factors you identified. (2 marks)

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12) Redesign our experiment: Imagine you are a plant biologist at a university. You
have all the money, resources, and space you want to do this experiment. How would
you design this experiment so that the confounding factors are eliminated? Be creative.
In the space below, writing in a numbered list, describe exactly what you would do in
each step of your experiment. Be as specific as you can. Your experiment must be able
to prove or disprove your hypothesis in question 5. (10 marks)

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Which organelles are found only in plant cells?
=
2. Fill in the blanks:
i.

____________ occurs inside the __________ of the plant cells and a
major function of plant cells.

ii.

____________ is called the powerhouse of the cell.

iii.

Endoplasmic Reticulum is responsible for regulating __________ levels
and ___________ metabolism.

3. Why are lysosomes called as a digestion of cell?
=

4. Give three differences between
a) Animal and plant cells
Animal cells

Plant cells

b) RER and SER
RER

SER

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5. Write whether it’s True or False for the following:
a) The nucleus holds the genetic instructions needed for reproduction to
happen.
b) Only animal cells contain mitochondria.
c) Both plant and animal cells have parts called organelles that help them
breathe and make energy.
d) Plant cells are the only ones that have a cell membrane.
6. Which cellular component acts like a gatekeeper, controlling the enters and
leaves the cell?
=
7. What precautions should we keep in mind right before viewing under microscope
during the cheek cell experiment?
=

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Experiment 3: The Digestive system and
Nutrition
I.

OBJECTIVES
You will learn by the end of the lab:
A. Digestive system
•

Recall the main organs and the functions of digestive system.

•

Demonstrate the process of digestion by tracing the path of food through
the digestive system.

•

Identify and label the anatomical structure of the human digestive system.

•

Use a microscope to observe and distinguish between the different types of
muscle cells.

•

Understand the role of each nutrient in maintaining health.

B. Nutrition
•

Know the meaning of nutrients, understand the different types of nutrients
and their benefits in our healthy diet.

•

Explain the concept of a calorie and determine the caloric value across
various portions of food.

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
All living beings need food to survive. The role of digestive system is to turn food into
useful nutrients by breaking it down with both physical and chemical processes. Each
part of the digestive system has its own special tissues that play a specific role.

Figure 8. Organs of the Digestive System
The mouth/ Oral cavity
Food digestion starts from the mouth which is also a point of entry of food. Here physical

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digestion starts by breakdown of food with the help of teeth and tongue. Whereas the
chemical digestion happens with the help of saliva which softens and moistens the food
to be swallowed. The saliva also contains an enzyme called salivary amylase which
further breaks down the starch into sugars.

Starch
Amylase
Sugars

Teeth

Tongue

Figure 9. Lateral view of head model with organs of digestive system

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Pharynx
The tongue pushes the chewed food into the pharynx. The food passes first from the
esophagus and then through the peristalsis or the wave-like contractions pushing the
food towards the stomach.
The _________________ canal is a tubular canal that connects from mouth to the anus.
Stomach

Food enter stomach,
there is contraction and
expansion further
breaking of food

Stomach secretes
Gastric juice= Mucus,
Hydrochloric acid and
Pepsin

Food is in semi-liquid
form called Chyme
(churning of food with
gastric juice)

Chyme enter into
small intestine
through pyloric
sphincter
What’s the role of: -

Pepsin: _____________________________________

-

Mucus: _____________________________________

-

Hydrochloric acid: _________________________________

Small Intestine
Majority of the food digestion and absorption occurs in small intestine.
Looking at the model, what are the different parts of small intestine seen?
____________________________________________
Pancreas and Liver
They are called accessory glands as they are not a direct part of the digestive system.
Pancreas and Liver secrete into the small intestine especially duodenum.

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Pancreas secretes:
➢ Enzymes: Amylase, trypsin, nuclease, lipase
➢ Bicarbonate: neutralizes the acid chyme.

Liver produces Bile → stored in gallbladder → enter small intestine by bile duct.
Contains bile salts, bicarbonate
ions, and phospholipids.

Breakdown of fat into small droplets
of fats that can be absorbed.

The lining of the small intestine has folds like little finger-like projections called villi, that
make a big surface area for absorbing nutrients and water into the bloodstream.
Large Intestine
The purpose of large intestine/ colon is to final absorption of undigested material
(minerals and water) passing from small intestine → undigested materials are called
feces → rectum stores feces before elimination → passed through anus.
Exercise 1: Draw a labelled diagram of the human alimentary canal.

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. List the structures in order of the movement of food to elimination.

2. Fill in the table with the following functions:
Structures

Functions

Small Intestine
Villi
Colon
Rugae
Common Bile
Duct

3. Digestion process continues in large intestine = True/ False?
4. Choose the appropriate answer:
a) What facilitate the movement of food through the digestive system?

a. digestive enzymes
b. gastric acid
c. mucous membranes
d. smooth muscles
b) What comprises of the digestive system:

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a. mouth, esophagus, and stomach
b. esophagus, stomach, and intestines
c. colon, rectum, and anus
d. pancreas, liver, and gallbladder
c) Into what does the digestive system breaks down food:

a. Saliva
b. Nutrients
c. Amylase
d. Sphincters
d) Where do nutrients from food travel during the absorption process?

a. the mouth into the stomach
b. eliminated from the body as waste
c. stored in the liver
d. the intestines into the bloodstream
e) How long does a digestive system takes on the food you eat:

a. 24 hours
b. 15 hours
c. 10 hours
d. 20 hours
5. To prevent choking when we swallow the tissue called ___________ closes over
the windpipe.
6. Which two glands _________ and _________ empty into which part of small
intestine _________?

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7. ___________ a series of muscle contractions, pushes the food down from the
esophagus to the stomach.
8. The liver is in the _________ quadrant.
9. Connect the following to their respective ways in helping digestion:
Pancreas

making bile and processing nutrients

Liver

making enzymes

Gallbladder

storing bile

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NUTRITION
Food is the necessity for humans and animals. Food packages provide information on
the recommended serving size alongside the energy content, measured in "calories"
which you must have noticed on the food packages you get from the store.
I.

CALORIES

Energy is expressed in terms of calories.
Calories signify the energy your body can obtain from the key nutrients in your food.
All person caloric values differ according to their age, height, weight.
Eating more calories than one expends leads to weight gain, while consuming fewer
calories than expended results in weight loss. Therefore, if you eat as much as you
use up, your weight stays the same.
Calculate calories:
No. of servings in the bag = size of total bag (grams)
serving size (grams)
Total calories = # of servings in the bag x number of calories per serving
Exercise 1: Look at the label of the food you have and calculate the calories
intake you will be having.

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II.

MACRONUTRIENTS
The food which our body need it in large quantity.
What are the 4 types of Macronutrients:
•

____________________

•

____________________

•

____________________

•

____________________

a) Carbohydrate

Potato!!! Do you
know, you have
the rich source
of
carbohydrates?

Yes, I
do!

Food: Vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fibers, vitamins, and minerals are
great sources of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are the energy source in the body and glucose is the
preferred energy source which circulates in the blood, main source of
energy for the muscle, our nervous system and only source for the brain.
What are carbohydrates composed of?
= __________________________________ (carbon, hydrogen, and

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oxygen)

b) Fibres
Fiber is composed of carbohydrates that are indigestible, such as
cellulose. There are two types of fibres:
•

Soluble fibres: absorb water. Example: Oats, barley, nuts, beans,
some fruits and vegetables. In case you have diarrhea and
constipation, soluble fibres are effective source.

•

Insoluble fibres: doesn’t absorb water. Example: Celery, wheat
bran, and whole grains.

c) Protein
Protein plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy diet composing of 4
elements: C, H, O, N. Proteins consist of amino acids linked together by
peptide bonds, forming relatively large molecules.
Cells use 20 different amino acids to make proteins.

Non-essential amino acids

Essential amino acids

11 amino acids body can synthesize

9 amino acids body cannot make.

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List the name of the food high in protein?
= _____________________________________________
Which protein should be eaten in limited quantity?
= _____________________
The requirement of amino acids is important to replace the old ones by
producing new body proteins.
d) Lipids
Lipids also contain has C, H, O much like carbohydrates and proteins, the
only difference lies on the higher amount of carbon and hydrogen.
Cholesterol
A type of lipid which is a waxy substance found in the body but the excess
of cholesterol is bad for your health.
Cholesterol can be 2 types:
•

LDL (low-density lipoprotein) (bad) cholesterol: the plaque
formation can block the artery.

•

HDL (high-density lipoprotein) (good) cholesterol: help in removing
the bad cholesterol from the artery.

III.

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Essential nutrients are nutrients that our bodies need but can't produce on their
own, so we must get them from our diet.
Essential nutrients:
•

Vitamins

•

Minerals

UCW Biol 100

72

•

9 essential amino acids

•

Fatty acids: omega-3 and omega-6

Vitamins & Minerals:
Vitamins are organic substances that our bodies need to work well, but we only need
them in small doses.
Most of the vitamins we obtain from food, why can’t our body make vitamins?
=

Table 5: 2 types of vitamins
Water soluble

Fat soluble

Vitamin: B and C

Vitamin: A, D, E, K

Vitamins that are easily washed out of

Upon absorption, stored as fat. Excessive

body

amount can be toxic

What are the major dietary sources for:
Vitamin C
Vitamin B12
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin D
Vitamin K

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Minerals are the chemical inorganic elements. The human requirement for major
dietary minerals are >200 mg/day.
Calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, chlorine, sodium and magnesium are the major
minerals of human.

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Why can’t our bodies make essential nutrients?
=
2. Micronutrients provide majority of the energy. T/F
3. Describe the chemical difference between carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

4. What is the key difference between vitamins and minerals? Name some
examples of each.

5. What is an essential nutrient? Provide an example of an essential nutrient
required in your diet.

6. Choose your favorite food/snack label, cannot be the same as your classmate.
You can use cereal chocolate, cookies, or anything you like. Submit your food

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UCW Biol 100

label with your assignment.
a) How many servings are in the entire container/package? SHOW YOUR
WORK!

b) How many calories are in the entire container/package? SHOW YOUR
WORK!

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REFERENCES
Betts, J. G., Young, K. A., Wise, J. A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D. H., Korol, O.,
Johnson, J. E., Womble, M., & DeSaix, P. (2022, April 20). 23.1 Overview of the
Digestive System—Anatomy and Physiology 2e | OpenStax. OpenStax.
https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-1-overview-ofthe-digestive-system
Dalton, L., & Young, R. (2024). Fundamentals of Cell Biology. Oregon State University.
https://open.oregonstate.education/cellbiology/front-matter/acknowledgments/
Genovesi, E., Blinderman, L., & Natale, P. (2019, June 30). Unfolding the Mystery of
Life—Biology Lab Manual for Non-Science Majors. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Unfoldin
g_the_Mystery_of_Life_-_Biology_Lab_Manual_for_NonScience_Majors_(Genovesi_Blinderman_and_Natale)
Government of Canada, C. C. for O. H. and S. (2024, May 10). CCOHS: WHMIS Pictograms.
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/whmis_ghs/pictograms.html
Karling, J. S. (1939). Schleiden’s Contribution to the Cell Theory. The American
Naturalist, 73(749), 517–537. https://doi.org/10.1086/280862
University of Canada west. (2011, September 21). Student Rights and Responsibilities.
https://www.ucanwest.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/UCW-9014-StudentRights-and-Responsibilities-Policy.pdf