Exploring the Impact of Client-Based Projects on the Employability of International
Students

Report Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Business Administration

Sanduni Kaushalya Tholka Mudalige Dona

University Canada West

MBAR 661 – Academic Research Project (ONS SPRING25 - 02)

September 18, 2025
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 10
1.1 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH GAPS ....................................................... 14
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 15
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES....................................................................................... 16
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE REPORT .................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 18
2.1 TECHNICAL SKILLS ............................................................................................. 19
2.2 META-SKILLS ...................................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 Creativity ................................................................................................................. 21
2.2.2 Critical Thinking...................................................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Communication ........................................................................................................ 24
2.2.4 Collaboration........................................................................................................... 25
2.3 STUDENT FEEDBACK ........................................................................................... 26
2.4 EMPLOYABILITY.................................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH MODEL, HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT, AND
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ......................................................................................... 30
3.1 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS ...................................................................................... 30
3.2 RESEARCH MODEL .............................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 36
4.1 DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................................. 36
4.2 SAMPLING AND POPULATION .............................................................................. 37
4.3 SURVEY INSTRUMENT AND MEASUREMENT SCALE............................................. 37
4.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 40
4.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS METHOD ....................................................................... 41
4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................. 43
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ............................................................... 45
5.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS................................................................. 45
5.1.1 Gender ..................................................................................................................... 45
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5.1.2 Age ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.1.3 Program Registered ................................................................................................. 46
5.1.4 Employment States ................................................................................................... 47
5.2 DATA CLEANING AND MISSING DATA ................................................................ 48
5.3 MEASUREMENT MODEL RESULTS........................................................................ 49
5.3.1 Construct Reliability and Validity............................................................................ 49
5.3.2 Discriminant Validity ............................................................................................... 53
5.3.3 Interpretation of Collinearity Statistics (VIF) ......................................................... 55
5.3.4 Robustness Checks ................................................................................................... 58
5.4 STRUCTURAL MODEL RESULTS ........................................................................... 59
5.5 PATH COEFFICIENTS AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING ................................................. 60
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................................................... 71
6.1 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS .............................................................................. 71
6.2 PRACTICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY ....................................................... 73
6.3 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................... 75
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION, LIMITATION, AND FUTURE SCOPE OF THE
STUDY .................................................................................................................................... 77
7.1 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 77
7.2 LIMITATIONS ....................................................................................................... 79
7.3 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 80
CHAPTER 8: REFERENCES ..................................................................................... 83
APPENDIXES ............................................................................................................. 93

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 .................................................................................................................... 35
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY .......................................... 35
FIGURE 2 .................................................................................................................... 49
MEASUREMENT MODEL RESULTS ..................................................................... 49
FIGURE 3 .................................................................................................................... 59
STRUCTURAL MODEL RESULTS .......................................................................... 59
FIGURE 4 .................................................................................................................... 68
MODERATION ANALYSIS PLOT- TECHNICAL SKILLS ................................... 68
FIGURE 5 .................................................................................................................... 69
MODERATION ANALYSIS PLOT- META SKILLS............................................... 69

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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1...................................................................................................................... 45
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE GENDER OF RESPONDENTS................. 45
TABLE 2...................................................................................................................... 46
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE AGE OF RESPONDENTS......................... 46
TABLE 3...................................................................................................................... 47
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROGRAM REGISTERED
RESPONDENTS. ..................................................................................................................... 47
TABLE 4...................................................................................................................... 48
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF
RESPONDENTS. ..................................................................................................................... 48
TABLE 5...................................................................................................................... 50
CONSTRUCTS SOURCES, FACTOR LOADINGS, RELIABILITY, AND AVE .......... 50
TABLE 6...................................................................................................................... 53
DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY BY FORNELL-LACKER ................................................ 53
TABLE 7...................................................................................................................... 55
DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY BY HTMT CRITERION ................................................. 55
TABLE 8...................................................................................................................... 55
COLLINEARITY STATISTICS (VIF) OUTER MODEL .............................................. 55
TABLE 9...................................................................................................................... 56
COLLINEARITY STATISTICS (VIF) OUTER MODEL .............................................. 56
TABLE 10.................................................................................................................... 61
PATH COEFFICIENTS AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING ............................................. 61
TABLE 11.................................................................................................................... 63
R-SQUARED AND R-SQUARED ADJUSTED ........................................................... 63
TABLE 12.................................................................................................................... 63
F-SQUARE................................................................................................................... 63
TABLE 13.................................................................................................................... 65
PREDICTIVE RELEVANCE........................................................................................ 65
TABLE 14.................................................................................................................... 65
PATH COEFFICIENTS AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING ............................................. 65

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Abstract

This study analyzes the impact of client-based projects on the employability of international
students in Canada. This research examines how technical and meta-skills (creativity,
communication, critical thinking, and collaboration), and student feedback influence the
perceived employability of international students in Canada. This study uses survey responses
from 526 participants and uses a structural model for empirical analysis. The research
findings demonstrate that technical and meta-skills are significant indicators of employability,
and the student feedback as a moderating factor influences the relationship between
independent and dependent variables. The theoretical contribution of the research emphasizes
the practical implications for universities, post-secondary institutions, employers, industry
partners, and policymakers to understand the importance of experimental learning while
ensuring career readiness. Overall, this study exhibits that students who participated in a
client-based project have a positive impact on enhancing employability by developing
technical and meta-skills, and that structure is further strengthened by structured feedback.

Key Words: Client-Based Projects(CBPs), Employability, International Students, Technical
Skills, Meta-Skills, Student Feedback, Experiential Learning

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Acknowledgement
I express my gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Vaishali Sethi, for her
valuable direction, supervision, support, and encouragement over this study. Also, my
appreciation goes to the MBA Research Project committee of the University Canada West,
which provided the resources and facilitated enrolment for this subject.
I am extremely thankful to all the students who contributed to the survey and to the faculty
members who helped gather participants for the survey.
Lastly, I am thankful to my family and friends for their continuous support, encouragement,
and motivation.

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Certification
This is to certify that the research work titled “Exploring the Impact of ClientBased Projects on Employability of International Students” is the original work of
Sanduni Kaushalya Tholka Mudalige Dona, as a coursework requirement for the degree of
Master of Business Administration at University Canada West, under the supervision of Dr.
Vaishali Sethi.
To the best of my knowledge, this research has not been presented for a degree at this or any
other institution.

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Dedication
This study is committed and dedicated to all the international students in Canada who
strive to enhance their employability. It is a compliment to their resilience, determination, and
steady effort in academic and professional success.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
In recent decades, educational institutions have faced pressure to increase the
employability skills of their graduates to meet the job market demand (Jackling & De Lange,
2009; Turner, 2014). Rapid changes in the business world have posed significant challenges
to students to build potential skills apart from the theoretical knowledge that meet the
expectations of employers (De Lange et al., 2006; Wilton, 2011). The recent economic
depression and challenges clearly highlight the need for skillful and work-ready employees to
address the drawbacks (Hossain, Alam, Alamgir, & Salat, 2020).
Employability is a main concern for international students who come to pursue higher
studies in developed countries (Zhao et al., 2024; Li et al., 2024). Although foreign
experience and qualifications are commonly reflected as career strengths, international
students in Canada face obstacles in securing employment opportunities after their
graduation. In Canada, these challenges are frequently combined with problems of
qualification recognition, a lack of Canadian experience, and ambiguity about communication
processes and organizational culture. These issues result in ‘First-job-friction’, where an
eligible international graduate finds it difficult to reliably convey their expertise and
competencies to employers (Thomas, 2021). It reveals the signaling problem that employers
may not value international graduates’ proficiencies and potential productivity since they
heavily depend on signals such as qualifications, domestic work experience, or cultural
alignment when examining applicants. Therefore, international graduates might strategically
demonstrate their employability credentials through their professional skills and values to
secure employment (Handley & den Outer, 2024).
The recent Canadian academic research clarifies this problem for international
students in the Greater Toronto area, stating that increasing employment barriers throughout
the period, as many graduates encounter barriers to employment despite their higher
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educational credentials. Almost half of the students revealed that their income did not
adequately cover living expenses, which emphasizes structural challenges that limit graduates
from conveying their employability skills to potential employers (Hoxhaj, Muharremi, &
Aarif, 2025).
According to Reitz et al. (2014), high-skilled foreign workers in Canada, including
international students, confronted difficulties when finding jobs related to their previous
experience and qualifications. The main potential reasons for these challenges are primarily a
lack of recognition of foreign experience and qualifications, and language barriers. To bridge
the gap between academic education and employment skills, Canadian higher educational
institutions have implemented experimental learning methods such as client-based project
(CBP) models. The Riipen is a common platform for educators, learners, and employers to
network and prepare the career readiness of students. (Dalecki, 2019). These projects help
international students to develop technical and meta-skills in a professional context (Rohm et
al., 2021).
Although the previous literature has highlighted the benefits of internships,
experimental learning, and co-op programs, the impact of CBP on the employability of
international students remains underexplored. However, the role of student feedback as a
moderator in influencing the employability skills of international students through the studies
is not well understood. Students perceived that feedback offers an understanding of how
international students observe CBP on fostering technical and meta-skills. For instance, such
student feedback captures not only skill acquisition but also generates self-efficacy,
confidence, and preparedness for the domestic workforce, thus providing a significant
indicator for evaluating employability outcomes (Cull et al., 2022).

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This study focuses on exploring the impact of CBP on the employability of
international students by evaluating the development of both technical and meta-skills and
assessing the moderating function of student feedback in the study. The findings of this
research are expected to deliver effective insight for post-secondary institutions, instructors,
and policymakers to help design more influential empirical learning approaches to enhance
the employability of graduate students.
Client-based Projects (CBPs)
Client-based learning provides an opportunity to work closely with industry
professionals and apply the theories they learn in a scenario-based approach, which outlines a
real business problem (Goodell & Kraft, 1991; Swan & Hansen, 1996). CBPs can differ in
size, small or large scale, time durations, organization types (profit or non-profit), financial
sponsorship with or without, and different outcomes such as community service or profit
maximization (Tofighi, 2022).
When studies are combined with course content and a CBP, learning gets more
realistic and students feel more interested and motivated (de los Santos & Jensen, 1985).
McEachern (2001) proposes that “client projects challenge students in ways that not even the
best-written case study or end-of-the-textbook chapter exercise can duplicate” (p. 211).
Previous studies reveal that CBPs benefit students in building career development skills to
accomplish in their future roles and are appreciated by employers (Cooke & Williams, 2004).
In the meantime, students are likely to be more engaged and motivated to learn CBPs when
they realize how it relates to their future career goals or professional development (Razzouk,
Seitz, & Rizkallah, 2003). Educators and institutions also benefited from the CBPs as they
can stay in touch with the current market trends and practices, enhance knowledge about a
specific field, and build networking opportunities (Cooke & Williams, 2004) and potential

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future research or consulting opportunities (de los Santos & Jensen, 1985). CBPs have wide
recognition due to their high-impact practices in post-secondary higher education since they
integrate theory with practice through experimental learning.
Moreover, real-world scenarios in CBPs link educational institutes and local
communities, strengthening the relationships and mutual benefits (Cooke & Williams, 2004;
Goodell & Kraft, 1991; Razzouk et al., 2003). CBPs benefited students in developing
technical knowledge, analytical skills, academic confidence, problem-solving and critical
thinking, leadership, creativity, accountability, sense of ownership, and team management in
a professional setting (Tofighi, 2022).
In addition to the employability skills, CBPs promote adaptability and resilience
across variations in original scopes, client needs, and real-world restrictions. The classroom
simulation studies do not require in-depth thinking to deal with uncertainty and make
strategic adjustments to the evolving market needs (Zhang & Scribner, 2024). These
experiences reflect professionalism by balancing competing demands, productivity, and
enhancing career readiness and confidence in real-world settings. Although the complexity of
the client problems forces students to understand and think differently, and encourages them
to bring more diverse, innovative solutions that are tailored to specific constraints (Bacon &
Stewart, 2022; Lange et al., 2018; Ye et al., 2017). Completing a CBP allows students to feel
self-satisfaction, since they contributed to making a change by solving a specific issue for
their client (Dingus & Milovic, 2018). Some universities define CBPs as a ‘service-based
learning’ designation since the benefits that students provide to the client organization by
creating real value (Dingus & Milovic, 2018).
The success of the CBPs depends on the alignment between the instructor, the student,
and the client based on project scope, project outcomes, timelines, and change management

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(Zhang & Scribner, 2024). Positioning the project outcomes with the learning using the multisource assessments, and feedback from multiple sources such as the instructor, client, peer
students, and self-reflection, would fairly evaluate the assurance of learning (Dingus &
Milovic, 2018). Finally, the confidentiality should be protected for client data and
organizational information to align with the professional standards and sustain the long-term
relationship.
1.1 Research Problem and Research Gaps
Employability of the international students in Canada poses a significant challenge
due to cultural barriers, language inefficiencies, lack of awareness of the Canadian workplace
climate, and lack of Canadian work experience. While CBPs are widely applied in academic
learning to bridge the gap between required employability skills. So far, there are limited
experimental studies discussing how these projects impact the employability of international
students. The previous studies emphasised that CBPs enhance the technical skills, such as
handling hardware, computer applications, and industry applications, and meta-skills such as
creativity, communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and adaptability (Hossain et al.,
2020; Rohm et al., 2021). Nevertheless, most studies focus on CBPs of domestic students and
make comparisons with theoretical learning outcomes.
This creates a research gap for assessing the impact of CBP on the employability of
international students in Canada, to determine whether CBP can address the gap between
theoretical learning and the employability of international students, specifically when
preparing them with the relevant skills valued by the Canadian job market. Furthermore,
some unreliable feedback suggests CBP can enhance confidence and career readiness.
Therefore, accurately addressing this gap is essential for improving academic curricula,
strategies, and policies with the aim of safeguarding international students’ employability

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skills. This study focuses on exploring how CBP strengthens international graduates’
readiness for the Canadian workforce.
1.2 Research Questions
By analyzing the research problem and gaps, this research is developed to answer the main
research questions as follows,
Research Question 1. To what extent do the technical skills attained through CBPs influence
the employability of international students in higher education institutions?
Research Question 2. To what extent do meta-skills (creativity, critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication) attained through CBPs as a higher-order construct
influence the employability of international students in Canada?
Research Question 3: How does the student feedback moderate the relationship between
technical skills, as well as meta-skills, and the employability of international students in
Canada?
The above three research questions are designed to explore the applicability of CBPs for
international students’ employability. Eventually, answering these research questions will be
beneficial to students, educators, and policymakers on how CBPs can be sharpened to elevate
international student employability and career accomplishment in the Canadian labour
market.

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1.3 Research Objectives
The primary objective of this study is to examine the impact of the CBPs on the
Employability of International Students in Canada. The following specific objectives have
been created to strengthen the main objective:
• To analyse the impact of CBPs on the employability skills of international students in
Canada.
• To assess the influence of technical and meta-skills gained from CBPs on the employment
outcomes of international students.
• To provide recommendations to educators, program designers, and policymakers on how
CBPs can be optimized to better enhance the employability of international students.
• To evaluate the suitability of CBPs in engaging students and equipping them with the
necessary skills for the Canadian workforce.
1.4 Outline of the Report
This report is arranged into eight chapters. The first chapter introduces the
background of study by providing an overview of the study, research problems, research
questions, and research objectives. The second chapter delivers a comprehensive review of
the existing literature, highlighting previous studies on client-based learning and
employability skills through a theoretical framework.
The third chapter presents research design, hypothesis development, theoretical
background, and the proposed research design. The fourth chapter delivers the research
methodology through data collection procedures, analytical tools, and ethical considerations.
The data collection process ensures the participant’s anonymity and the confidentiality of the
data.

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The fifth chapter explores the research results and findings of the data through
descriptive statistical analysis, data cleaning, analyzing model results through patterns and
trends, and finally validating the hypothesis. The sixth chapter presents a discussion of
findings and the theoretical and practical implications of the study, linking the study findings
and questions. The seventh chapter concludes the findings by addressing constraints and
limitations and outlining guidelines for future research opportunities. The last chapter
mentioned the list of references utilized across this study.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter elaborates on the existing literature on how skills gained through CBPs
influence the employability of international students in Canada. The Literature review starts
with the technical skills that act as industry-specific competencies in real business cases. The
second part describes the meta-skills, also known as soft skills, mainly creativity, critical
thinking, communication, and collaboration, and these skills encourage students to adapt to a
professional work environment smoothly. The literature review explores how the moderator
role of student feedback contributes to skills enhancement and employability after graduation.
Finally, the review concludes by discussing how CBPs affect the overall employability of
international students by addressing the gap between the theoretical learning and current
market demand.

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2.1 Technical Skills
Technical skills are often referred to as professional field-associated competencies
that are needed to complete certain tasks accurately. It is called industry-specific knowledge
and proficiency to complete a specific task (Mwita et al., 2024). Technical skills are
sometimes considered job-specified skills as they are a critical component in fulfilling labor
market demand (Dolce et al., 2019). Different technical skills, including numeracy skills,
basic computer skills, and work-related software skills, are required for international students
to do their job more effectively (Hossain et al., 2020). These skills serve as a bridge to
connect theories to practical application in the job market. Students usually get technical
skills through work experience, internships, mentorships, and tutorials related to their studies
(Etomes, 2021). According to McMurray et al. (2016), technical skills strengthen the
individual’s employability from the employer’s perspective. CBPs help students develop
technical skills that make them ready for the future job market (Rohm et al., 2021).
In addition to the basic computer skills and numeracy skills, employers require fieldspecific technical skills with the current market trend, such as data analytics, handling
accounting software, and technology integration. International students need exposure to
these technological tools to cover the gap between academic learning and employer
expectations. According to Mwita et al. (2024), technical skills enable credibility in the
current job market, and Dolce et al. (2019) emphasize that these technical skills, often called
hard skills, act as a focal point of the labour market. Therefore, providing a structured
theoretical background from the coursework, with practical applications through a CBP,
strengthens the international students’ capacity to meet employer expectations effectively.
Likewise, CBPs have a significant impact on improving technical competencies
among students. By engaging in these projects, students can practice some industryspecialized tools like knowledge management systems, customer relationship management
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systems, data visualization tools, and project management software in a live organizational
context. According to Rohm et al. (2021), experimental learning not only benefits technical
skill development but also promotes technology integration with reflective thinking,
situational analysis, and critical analysis skills to make sound business decisions in their
future careers. The coordination between technical and cognitive skills supports students in
building transferable skills (Gouda-Vossos et al., 2023), which can be applied to different
industries to ensure compliance and employability.
2.2 Meta-skills
Apart from technical skills, international students must have meta-skills for all
occupational levels, from entry-level to top management (Beachum & Krallman, 2024).
Meta-skills are broad and defined as adaptable skills that help people to use essential
technical and practical skills more effectively, which include critical thinking, problemsolving, interpersonal skills, communication, and collaboration (Rohm et al., 2021). In
today’s competitive world, employers are deliberately seeking meta-skills from graduates
since they can convert theoretical knowledge across different industries, familiarize
themselves with new work cultures, and adapt to the rapid external and internal changes.
Technical skills are outdated with the current market trends and technological advancements,
but the meta-skills remain transferable for any changes and relevant to the future career
growth of the students. According to the previous studies, CBPs provide higher levels of
intellectual development and skill growth, influencing students’ meta-skills growth and
enabling them to obtain a competitive edge in the employment landscape (Tofighi, 2022).
The partnership of 21st-Century Learning recognized certain skills that students need
to be equipped with, mainly the 4Cs (creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication), among other skills (Rohm et al., 2021). These 4Cs are not only beneficial to
academic skills but also align with the practical requirements within the organization, such as
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leadership, team collaboration, and innovation. Many organizations implement digital
transformation, automation, and technology advancement as a core strategy; the transferable
role of meta-skills supports international students to make inclusive changes, remain
competitive with the advanced technologies, and stay resilient. These skills act as a global
drive for future success, prepare students to adapt to fast-paced environments with advanced
technologies, and attain competitive advantages in future careers (Goto & Goto, 2024).
2.2.1 Creativity
Creativity is an important skill that provides solutions to complex problems using a
novel and appropriate way (Rohm et al., 2021). Creativity always provides innovative
solutions using creative thinking; thinking abilities, motivation, and expertise that encourage
creativity (Goto & Goto, 2024). Nevertheless, studies show that creativity is not all about
new ideas or prospects, which highlights the need for adapting existing knowledge from
coursework into unfamiliar circumstances, eventually creating highly transferable skills for
graduate employability (Gouda-Vossos et al., 2023). With the evolving technologies, the
ability to address the problems differently and develop flexible and timely resolutions is a
potential requirement for graduate students. Also, organizations progressively demand that
graduate students demonstrate creativity in their professional lives since it makes them
differentiate their career development strategy.
Previous studies reveal that experimental learning is a practical teaching approach that
fosters creativity and innovation (Tsai et al., 2024). CBPs bridge international students with
real-world business issues where creativity becomes a core competency. This work
environment fosters innovation, proactiveness, and integrates technical skills and meta-skills
such as adaptability and creativity (Tofighi, 2022). This indicates that creativity is nurtured
when students work with others and participate in real-world business cases as a whole rather

21

than working alone. Notably, creativity empowered students to become adaptable
professionals who can succeed in an ambiguous, uncertain, and energetic career landscape.
Moreover, creativity positively correlated with academic performance and workplace
readiness by acting as a link between learning and application in professional settings (Tsai et
al., 2024). As stated by Tsai et al.'s 2024 findings, creativity not only mediates the link
between self-efficacy and employability but also independently contributes to students' career
readiness. The CBPs encourage students to do experimentation and reflections on what they
learned, and foster creativity as a habitual thing in their lives. As a result, international
students equipped with creativity skills are positioned as highly career-ready individuals in a
diverse professional environment.
CBPs are an active learning technique that provides opportunities for students to gain
innovative, creative, and practical experience (Tofighi, 2022). Therefore, creativity is a strong
independent variable for the employability of international students as it is boosted by the
client-based learning environments.
2.2.2 Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is evaluating alternatives, analysing arguments, interpreting, and
making implications to explain and understand complexities (Rohm et al., 2021). Petrov
(2025) defined critical thinking as students’ ability to examine, identify, scrutinize, and
prioritize appropriate information and rationalize their decisions with recommendations. It is
a successful reasoning approach that identifies connections, concepts, and disciplines to make
judgments meaningfully (Ramli et al., 2024). The previous literature illustrates that there is a
significant gap between the career readiness and critical thinking skills of international
students and their potential. Critical capacity is an essential career requirement for
international students to meet the expectations of today’s society.

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According to Yu et al. (2013), graduate students often feel that they are well-prepared
with critical thinking abilities, but employers weigh it as a moderate level. Likewise, Viviers
(2016) highlighted that students supposed that they have moderate to high levels of critical
thinking exposure, as employers ranked critical thinking as the core competency for
employability. The perceived critical thinking exposure and required level create a gap for
higher educational institutions to reinforce critical thinking capabilities to comply with
employer expectations (Musametov, 2021). Therefore, post-secondary institutions should
incorporate critical thinking into all study areas through practical reflections, such as
interdisciplinary CBPs, to bridge the employability gap.
Thus, educators have a great responsibility to transform students for the Anticipated
workforce trends and to develop academic profeciencies through critical thinking abilities
(Ramli et al., 2024). Previous studies highlight that students who engaged with CBPs
benefited from critical thinking skills, which are always connected with the other imperative
skills. In particular, Critical thinking is frequently linked with creativity, teamwork, and
communication, as the process of evaluating and upgrading ideas requires collaboration,
exchanging views, and justifying the alternatives. Furthermore, critical thinking abilities
support students to build confidence and learn to prove their opinions with evidence-based
reasoning and logical analysis (Tofighi, 2022).
For instance, critical thinking skills depend on unique attributes such as self-efficacy,
innovation, and need for complexity (Tofighi, 2022). Consequently, students who are
equipped with critical thinking skills will become more adaptable, innovative, and resilient in
their career development. Hence, the critical thinking skills are a strong independent variable
for the employability of international students.

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2.2.3 Communication
Communication is critical to social, personal, and future career success in today’s
landscape. Globalization has fostered cross-cultural understanding and social relationships,
highlighting the need for effective communication (Goto & Goto, 2024). Communication is
defined as an articulate exchange of information, and communication skills are segregated
into verbal and non-verbal skills. It is a part of professional skills that is required for the
success of students in their future careers (Wu et al., 2023). Communication skills are not
only associated with expressing ideas, but communication is also the foundation of
teamwork, problem-solving skills, understanding others, being understood by others,
managing differences, and social and industry relationships (Fantini, 2024).
CBPs help students connect with the network and enhance their communication skills
for their career progression (Tsai et al., 2024) by giving hands-on experience on written and
verbal communication skills, presentation skills with clients, engaging with the audience, and
justifying reasons, opinions, and assumptions (Rohm et al., 2021). The CBPs develop
technical communications skills as well as cross-cultural competence, where the students
need to mingle with clients from different social, cultural, and professional backgrounds. The
capability to navigate with different cultures with mutual respect strengthens the clarity and
awareness of the communication.
Moreover, CBPs allow students to communicate clearly with different groups and
different professions. These experiences promote dynamic management competencies,
including confidence, compliance, and conflict resolution (McCale, 2008; Rohm et al., 2021;
Thompson et al., 2021). Besides that, effective communication influences trust, professional
relationships, and clarity of expression by reducing the risk of misunderstandings. When
students thoroughly strengthen their communication skills, they develop influential and

24

negotiation skills, which are essential for leadership roles in their future careers (Finch,
Nadeau, & O’Rourke, 2013).
When students collaborate with the clients, they will learn active listening, empathy,
and adapt diverse communication strategies to address different audiences. Active listening
enhances the understanding of underlying concerns, and empathy reinforces emotional
intelligence to respond appropriately to emotions or challenges stated by clients. Besides,
adapting to diverse communication strategies, such as formal or informal, increases the
flexibility to deal with the multidisciplinary frameworks. These networking skills are
essential for students to emerge as leaders in their careers (Wu et al., 2023).
2.2.4 Collaboration
Collaboration encourages students to use their individual skills to work together, stay
motivated, and work toward a shared objective. Team collaboration is an essential skill for
performing effectively as a part of a team (Rohm et al., 2021). According to the students’
perspectives, team collaboration can be defined in two ways: the first is to complete the
specific group work efficiently, and the second is a process of cultivating individual and
collective knowledge. The second viewpoint highlights that team collaboration embeds
cooperation, flexibility, and interactive skills (Volkov & Volkov, 2015). From this method,
students work as real-world cross-functional collaborative groups and prepare their mindset
for future career readiness.
The previous studies have shown that CBPs help students enhance collaboration
(Strauss, 2011), team dynamics, a proper feedback mechanism, address challenges and
problems as a team, and share individual responsibility. Collaboration nurtures transversal
competencies such as adaptability, innovative and critical thinking, problem solving, selfdirected learning, and communication. Other than the project outcomes, these competencies

25

are difficult to transfer in traditional in-class learning. More importantly, these competencies
boost career readiness by preparing students to engage with real-world complexities
(González-Cespón et al., 2024).
When working in multidisciplinary teams with different fields and disciplines, they
are often better prepared for future careers (Rohm et al., 2021). Moreover, CBPs provide a
unique platform for students, often referred to as engagers, to directly engage with educators
and employers, which is called the “3Es” partnership (Fletcher-Brown, Knibbs, & Middleton,
2015). 3Es partnership supports students to collaborate successfully within their team and
provide timely responses to employers’ needs, manage time, and project outcomes
effectively. This hands-on experience enables students to enhance their communication skills,
negotiation skills, and become responsible among the team members. Moreover,
interdisciplinarity in collaboration integrates diverse academic knowledge, values, and
perspectives, and encourages students to comprehend how theoretical learning redesigns the
real-world demand. Also, the collaboration allows them to analyze complex situations to
deliver innovative resolutions that they cannot accomplish individually. When students
engage with CBPs, they particularly learn the importance of redistributing tasks among
members when facing challenges and learn from the group dynamics to adapt the situation
well (Fletcher-Brown, Knibbs, & Middleton, 2015).
2.3 Student Feedback
Student can enhance their technical and meta-skills by engaging with real-world
business cases. These skills impact the employability, which is determined by how students
interpret the CBP outcomes. Therefore, student feedback plays a vital role in client-based
learning, which indicates the self-evaluation of how CBPs build technical and meta-skills and
their impact on employability. According to Tofighi (2021), student who engaged in CBPs not
only benefited from academic excellence but also enhanced their career confidence, hard
26

skills, and soft skills. Their positive feedback reveals that client-based learning experience
helps them develop employability skills. Moreover, the previous studies reveal that the
students who engaged in client-based learning have developed collaboration, leadership
skills, and project management skills from the post-surveys, and their feedback magnifies that
these skills would be helpful to their future career development (Kricsfalusy et al., 2016).
Student feedback links the theoretical learning and practical application. The previous
case studies emphasized that the feedback mechanism helps students to reveal their
improvements through CBPs, strengths, and weaknesses in determining their employability
skills (Zhang & Scribner, 2024). Childers et al. (2020) stated that student perspectives and
evaluations of CBPs elevate the level of confidence in problem-solving, critical thinking, and
collaborative techniques. Therefore, student feedback exemplifies attitude transformation and
skill enhancement, indicating that students with high self-efficacy assign a higher value to
CBPs. This emphasizes that student feedback is a larger concept than sharing opinions; it is
an analytical tool that connects to student evaluations, learning outcomes, and employability
skills.
The previous studies about work-integrated learning (WIL) by Ramukumba (2021),
student feedback address the imbalance between the formal education and industry demand
by elaborating how students were prepared and challenges encountered, and skills developed
through experimental learning. The student feedback supports post-secondary institutions in
redesigning the programs so that future students are better aligned with industry expectations.
Students’ feedback is an influential factor for improving the quality of academic learning in
order to reinforce employability pathways. Moreover, their ability to trace these technical and
meta-skills to future career development elaborates the moderating role of student feedback
to strengthen the correlation between technical and meta-skills and employability.

27

2.4 Employability
Employability is a set of skills, abilities, understanding, and individual traits that
make an individual more likely to be confident and be effective in their career, which is
beneficial to themself, the organization, the community, and the whole economy (Galloway,
Marks, & Chillas, 2014). Employability is hard to measure and often associated with different
skills such as creativity, flexibility, collaboration, management, communication, technical
awareness, time management, and independence (Galloway, Marks, & Chillas, 2014). For
international students, employability is not all about obtaining qualifications; they have to
adapt to different cultural norms, be able to adjust to labour market demands, and gain the
global competencies required by the market (Tran & Soejatminah, 2016). The ability to
convert academic learning into professional careers evaluates the success of the international
student transition.
Moreover, employability emphasizes how an individual can convert these skills across
different industries by exhibiting adaptability through diverse market conditions. FletcherBrown, Knibbs, and Middleton (2015) stated that an effective graduate student’s
employability curriculum should include a comprehensive understanding of the subject,
technical and meta-skills, deployment strategies, efficacy beliefs, and meta-cognition to
enhance the readiness for the workplace. CBPs provide an experimental learning opportunity
by consulting real-world business cases with critical thinking and innovative approaches.
This enables students to evaluate their academic understanding in uncertain situations to
elevate adaptability and problem-solving abilities. The practical nature of the CBPs ensures
that employability goes beyond the theoretical knowledge, which requires core competencies
and confidence when applying knowledge in real-world situations. These active learning
methods help students to get competitive advantages in their careers (Tofighi, 2022).
Simultaneously, employability demands active learning, as students can evaluate their
28

strengths and weaknesses during the project implementation. Those replications help to figure
out the areas to develop, and provide guidelines to become employable, as it is a continuous
process.
According to the literature, students who participated in CBPs are prepared for the
current job market through technical and meta-skill development (Beachum & Krallman,
2024). This preparation consequently highlights the need for transferable skills, including
leadership, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication, which employers
constantly value along with technical skills. Forming a link between academic knowledge
and transferable skills, international students can position themselves as highly qualified,
adaptable applicants in a competitive job market.

29

Chapter 3: Research Model, Hypothesis Development, and Theoretical Background
This chapter introduces the research model to guide the study by developing a
detailed hypothesis and a theoretical background. The chapter highlights the influence of
CBPs on the employability of international students through technical and meta-skill
development. Additionally, it determines how meta-skills interrelate with technical
proficiencies to influence employability skills. By integrating these variables into a structured
research model, including independent and dependent variables and a moderator, this
conceptual framework connects theory with an experimental survey. This delivers the solid
background for the methodology and analysis part in the subsequent chapters.
3.1 Research Hypothesis
In alignment with the research objectives considered in the earlier chapter, the
following research hypotheses were designed to guide the study. These hypotheses are
developed to test the relationships between CBPs, the advancement of technical and metaskills, and the employability of international students in Canada. Moreover, the hypotheses
highlight the moderating role of student feedback in bridging the connection between
technical and meta-skills attained through CBPs and the perceived employability of
international students in Canada.
H1: Higher levels of Technical Skills are positively associated with Employability among
international students.
Technical skills are considered hard skills as they are a critical component in fulfilling labor
market demand (Dolce et al., 2019). CBPs have a substantial influence on improving
technical competencies among students (Tofighi, 2022). This hypothesis states that the
development of technical skills through CBPs, such as professional field-associated
competencies and industry-specific skills (numeracy skills, technology integration, basic
30

computer skills, and work-related software skills) (Hossain et al., 2020), directly influences
international students’ employability.
H2: Higher levels of Meta-skills are positively associated with Employability among
international students.
Meta-skills are required for every occupational type, from the preliminary level to high level
(Beachum & Krallman, 2024). Employers are intentionally looking for meta-skills from
graduates as meta-skills can convert theoretical knowledge to practical uses, such as new
work cultures, and adapt to the rapid external and internal changes. This hypothesis states that
the development of Meta-skills, known as high-order capabilities, such as adaptable soft
skills- creativity, critical thinking, teamwork, allows international students to adapt to fastpaced environments (Rohm et al., 2021), and directly influences international students’
employability.
H2a: Creativity makes a positive formative contribution to Meta-Skills.
Creativity is bringing new perspectives to complex situations using a novel and appropriate
way (Rohm et al., 2021). Creativity is positively correlated with academic excellence and
workplace readiness by connecting learning and application in a professional context (Tsai et
al., 2024). This hypothesis describes that the advancement of creativity skills is an essential
component of meta-skills, allowing international students to develop innovative solutions
using novel perspectives, fostering the adaptability to new work settings (Rohm et al., 2021),
and directly influencing international students’ employability.
H2b: Critical thinking makes a positive formative contribution to Meta-Skills.
Critical thinking is an essential capability for examining, identifying, scrutinizing, and
prioritizing information and rationalizing their decisions with recommendations (Ramli et al.,
2024). This hypothesis states that the advancement of critical thinking skills allows
31

international students to evaluate alternatives, analyse arguments, interpret, and draw
implications (Rohm et al., 2021). Critical thinking encourages the analysis and decisionmaking skills, which are a developmental factor that reinforces meta-skills and directly
influences international students’ employability.
H2c: Collaboration makes a positive formative contribution to Meta-Skills.
Team collaboration is a critical skill for performing effectively as a part of a team (Rohm et
al., 2021). Collaboration nurtures transferable proficiencies such as adaptability, innovation,
reflective thinking, reasoning, and communication. This hypothesis states that the
development of collaborative skills allows international students to promote interpersonal
skills, responsibility, and teamwork (Strauss, 2011). Stimulating collaborations as a formative
factor that strengthens meta-skills and has a direct influence on international students’
employability.
H2d: Communication makes a positive formative contribution to Meta-Skills.
Communication is a coherent exchange of information, and communication skills are
segregated into verbal and non-verbal skills. These skills are not only associated with
expressing ideas but also the foundation of teamwork, problem-solving skills, understanding
others, and being understood by others (Fantini, 2024). This hypothesis states that the
development of effective communication skills allows international students to express ideas
clearly and perform effectively as teams (Fantini, 2024). Also, it positioned communication
as a formative factor that strengthens meta-skills and has a direct influence on international
students’ employability.
H3a: Student Feedback moderates the relationship between Technical and Employability.

32

Student Feedback refers to the self-evaluation in CBPs learning, with how students
acknowledge and express key capabilities, including technical skills (Tofighi, 2021). This
indicates that, reflecting through the feedback process, students can reinforce their
employability by connecting academic knowledge with career preparedness. This hypothesis
states that student feedback amplifies the impact of technical skills on employability, since
feedback mechanisms allow students to reflect on their development and express their
abilities and competencies effectively in a professional atmosphere.
H3b: Student Feedback moderates the relationship between Meta-skills and Employability
Students can critically evaluate the development of the high-order meta-skills (
communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking) through an effective feedback
mechanism (Childers et al., 2020). This self-reflecting exaggerates the perceived benefits of
meta-skills, emphasizing their effort to enhance employability. Student feedback is also
proposed to strengthen the link between meta-skills and employability by strengthening how
students recognize, sharpen, and apply these higher-order skills in a professional
environment.

33

3.2 Research Model
The theoretical structure of the study is demonstrated by the research model. Which
linked CBPs to the employability of international students using technical and meta-skills.
These skills are categorized under independent variables as they influence the outcome of
employability. As such, students obtain technical and meta-skills as key competencies by
participating in CBPs. The technical skills reflect industry-specific competencies and
practical skills that are obtained through CBPs (Mwita et al., 2024). While meta-skills are
considered soft skills, such as creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication,
they transfer the students’ abilities to adapt to different work settings (Rohm et al., 2021).
Employability is classified as a dependent variable in the conceptual framework,
which indicates the student’s readiness to perform effectively in the workplace or the
readiness to transition from university to the labour market. The arrows from technical skills
and meta-skills to employability demonstrate the hypothetical relationships, which are
assumed as positive, and a higher level of skill development boosts the employability of the
students.
Furthermore, student feedback plays a moderator role in this research model.
Feedback is considered a significant component since it enables students to exemplify what
they learn, understand their progress, and better adapt the skills. The moderator role outlines
that the connection between independent and dependent variables is not sequential, but it
could be strengthened or weakened by the moderator. For instance, favourable students’
feedback strengthens the relationship between CBPs and employability.

34

Figure 1
The Conceptual Framework of the study

Note. This research model illustrates the impact of skills gains from client-based projects and
employability outcomes, while student feedback serves as a moderating role. This model was
developed based on Tofighi, M. (2022). Differential Effect of Client-Based and Non-ClientBased Projects on Marketing Students’ Course Performance and Evaluations. Marketing
Education Review, 32(1), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/10528008.2021.1871851 and Tsai,
C.-F., Chang, C.-P., Chen, T.-L., & Hsu, M.-L. (2024). Exploring the Influence of Personality
Traits, Self-Efficacy, and Creativity on Employability for Hospitality and Tourism College
Students. Sustainability (2071-1050), 16(4), 1490. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16041490 and
Hossain, M. M., Alam, M., Alamgir, M., & Salat, A. (2020). Factors Affecting Business
Graduates’ Employability--Empirical Evidence Using Partial Least Squares (PLS). Education
& Training, 62(3), 292–310. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-12-2018-0258

35

Chapter 4: Research Methodology
This chapter outlines the research methodology framework applied to validate the
hypothesis and research objectives. It describes the systematic sampling strategy and target
population methods used in data collection, the questionnaire format and measurement scales
used to collect data, the statistical data analysis process, and interpretation to magnify the
reliability, consistency, and validity of the findings. Finally, the ethical consideration of the
study is to clarify how participants’ rights and identity are protected to maintain the academic
integrity and ethics of the study.
4.1 Data Collection
Data were collected using an anonymous online questionnaire survey created in
Qualtrics and shared with students who have already completed or are completing CBPs as a
part of their coursework. The participation in the survey is totally voluntary, and the data
collected is anonymous.
This study adopted a quantitative research design since the quantitative survey
methods are widely applied in employability research; as such, Hossain et al. (2020)
examined factors affecting students’ employability skills using survey-based data analysis.
Moreover, Rohm et al. (2021) emphasised the value of client-based learning for developing
employability skills from real-world business cases. Moreover, the quantitative method is
appropriate for this research as it enables a broader sample of students and traces trends in
their responses.
A total of 580 responses were gathered through the data collection step, and after data
cleaning and missing data, 526 responses were identified as acceptable. This strong data
collection confirmed the reliability of the analysis.

36

4.2 Sampling and Population
The target population was selected from current international students or those who
have graduated within the last 12 months from a Canadian post-secondary institution,
colleges, and universities across British Columbia.
More importantly, the sampling scope was defined by the students who had participated in or
are currently participating in a CBP as a part of their coursework. These CBPs involved
structured programs such as Riipen and industry-related studies. A non-probability
convenience sampling method was applied to determine the samples.
The targeted sample size is more than 420 responses, and this study has collected 580
responses, which exceed the target size, indicating the high reliability. The targeted age
group is 20-35, as the majority of undergraduates and graduates represent this demographic
composition of international students in Canada. However, the survey was open to any age
limit, as international students represent diverse age groups regardless of their studies.
4.3 Survey Instrument and Measurement Scale
Data were collected using a structured web-based software, and the online survey was hosted
on Qualtrics. The survey is divided into four sections.
The first part of the survey was developed to collect demographic data such as age, gender,
educational programme, and employment status.
The second section was designed to evaluate independent variables such as the technical and
meta-skills development through CBPs.
The third section was developed to assess the moderating influence of student feedback
Lastly, the employability outcomes were evaluated through structured questions to measure
the validity of the dependent variable.
37

Measures and Instrumentation
All constructs in this study were evaluated through multi-item scales improved
through previously validated instruments in the employability and higher education literature
reviews. A seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) was used for
all items to capture the degree of agreement, including statements related to skills, feedback,
and employability. The seven-point Likert scale enables stronger variability in responses and
enhances reliability compared to shorter scales (Dolnicar & Grün, 2007).
Technical Skills
Technical skills were measured through eight items reflecting students’ perceptions of
the discipline-specific and transferable technical competencies generated through CBPs. Such
skills are knowledge acquisition, IT-related skills, adaptability, and problem-solving in realworld contexts (e.g., “The CBPs allowed me to gain subject-specific knowledge”). These
measures were cited from Ali (2017), Mwita, Mwilongo, and Mwamboma (2024), and
Etomes (2021).
Creativity
Creativity was measured using five items that assessed students’ capacity to generate
novel ideas, propose solutions, and manifest creative problem-solving during CBP (e.g.,
“Through CBPs, I often come up with innovative and practical ideas during projects or
tasks”). These measures were cited from Tsai et al. (2024) and Etomes (2021).
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking skills were measured through five items capturing students’ ability to
evaluate multiple perspectives, question assumptions, and apply reasoning in problemsolving (e.g., “Through CBPs, I have developed my critical thinking skills in making

38

reasoned judgments from opposing perspectives”). These measures were taken from Tsai et
al. (2024).
Communication
Communication was operationalized with eight items reflecting both written and oral
competencies, as well as the use of digital platforms for effective professional interaction.
Items included, for example, “The CBPs improve my ability to communicate my ideas in a
real-world context” and “Through CBPs, I learned to use digital media (WeChat, email, etc.)
to express my views and ideas accurately.” Sources for these measures included Kricsfalusy,
George, and Reed (2018), Tsai et al. (2024), Wu, Xu, and Philbin (2023), and Rohm, Stefl,
and Ward (2021).
Collaboration
Collaboration was assessed with six items addressing teamwork, interpersonal
effectiveness, and multidisciplinary engagement (e.g., “The CBPs encouraged and supported
me to develop interpersonal (teamwork) skills”). These measures were taken from
Kricsfalusy et al. (2018), Tsai et al. (2024), Parsons and Lepkowska-White (2009), and Rohm
et al. (2021).
Student Feedback
The moderating variable, student feedback, was evaluated using four items adapted
through meta-skills by Mwita et al. (2024). Items evaluated whether students provided
constructive feedback on their skills and whether such feedback enhanced their confidence in
employability-related outcomes (e.g., “Through CBPs, the skills and abilities that I have
earned are what employers are looking for”).

39

Employability
Employability, the outcome construct, was measured using six items reflecting
perceived readiness for the labor market. Items emphasized confidence in gaining
employment, relevance of project-learned skills to workplace context, and ability to solve
real-world problems (e.g., “International students participating in CBPs with better soft and
technical skills have a higher chance of getting employed”). Measures were adapted from
Gaumer, Cotleur, and Arnone (2012), Mwita et al. (2024), Tofighi (2022), McCale (2008),
and Kramer-Simpson, Newmark, and Dyke Ford (2015).
All these scales indicated strong content validity through reliance on established measures,
and they were pilot-tested for clarity and related appropriateness for the study. The
measurement model was validated through confirmatory factor analysis in SmartPLS, with
reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity discussed through the latter section.
Pilot Study
Before launching the full-scale survey, a pilot project was conducted to ensure the
clarity, reliability, and contextual relevance of the measurement instruments. A small sample
of 25 international students studied in Canadian higher education institutions was recruited
for this pre-test. The participants had prior experience with CBPs, ensuring their feedback
would be meaningful and applicable.
4.4 Data Collection Procedure
The data collection process starts with the recruitment process. Participants were invited to
the recruitment via email and social media outreach.
Email invitations were shared with international student bodies, faculty referrals, academic
departments, and career services in post-secondary institutions. Recruitment materials were

40

shared through email as an invitation to participation with an outline of the research,
objectives, and a Qualtrics link to the survey.
Social media and other institutional networks data were collected through posts in
international students’ Facebook and WhatsApp groups, and LinkedIn and institutional
platforms. The purpose of this recruitment method is to gather a distinct range of responses
from different institutions and academic programs.
Direct outreach was conducted with the collaboration of faculty members, academic advisors,
and student groups through direct invitations.
Participants will be notified that the contribution is voluntary, and their personal
identifications will not be recorded or disclosed.
The whole data collection process was conducted online using the Qualtrics survey platform,
which allows students to participate remotely. The online data collection approach safeguards
the convenience of access regardless of geographical location and can reach a diverse range
of responses. The survey was opened for a one-week period to gather the responses. The
survey was designed with mainly closed-ended questions in an accessible format. The time
duration was approximately 5-8 minutes.
4.5 Statistical Analysis Method
The collected data were imported into Excel for data cleaning and to identify the
missing values prior to starting the analysis process. This research has used a diverse set of
statistical techniques to gain a comprehensive understanding. Descriptive indicators such as
mean, standard deviation, percentages, and frequencies were considered when understanding
the distribution of technical and meta-skills, student feedback, and employability.
Furthermore, descriptive statistics are used to review demographic characteristics and
response patterns. SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software was applied for
41

the descriptive study. To analyze structural modeling and hypothesis testing and validate the
relationship between CBPs and employability outcomes, inferential statistical techniques
were employed.
To evaluate the hypotheses, the study employed Partial Least Squares Structural Equation
Modelling (PLS-SEM) instead of the covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) model. However,
both techniques are broadly used for latent variable assessments; the selection of the
modeling technique should align with the research purpose, objectives, model complexity,
and data characteristics.
First, the study’s purpose was prediction-oriented, targeting explaining variance in the
dependent variable of employability and analyzing its key drivers. In these contexts, PLSSEM is recommended since it maximizes the explained variance of endogenous constructs,
while CB-SEM is mainly applied for theory confirmation and validations and goodness-of-fit
evaluation (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011; Hair et al., 2019).
Second, sample size and data distribution concerns directed the decision. CB-SEM usually
requires larger samples and supposes multivariate normality (Kline, 2016). PLS-SEM,
whereas, is strong enough to handle deviations from normality and operates well with
medium-scale samples, while making it appropriate for survey data where non-normal
distributions are frequent (Sarstedt, Ringle, & Hair, 2019).
Third, the research model comprised hierarchical latent variables and integrative effects.
Particularly, “meta-skills” were hypothesized as a second-order construct containing four
skills: creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. CB-SEM frequently
confronts identification problems with such formative–reflective higher-order structures,
while PLS-SEM handles them efficiently by hierarchical component modelling (Becker,

42

Klein, & Wetzels, 2012). Furthermore, moderation analysis with interaction terms is more
transparent in PLS-SEM, positioning it as the more realistic option for this study.
Finally, the research area of study of CBPs and international student employability outcomes
remains moderately underexplored. PLS-SEM is broadly recommended for exploratory
studies since the theory is still developing and emerging, as it highlights forecast and theory
development rather than established theory validation (Hair et al., 2019). For these reasons,
PLS-SEM was acknowledged as more applicable than CB-SEM in attaining the objectives of
this research.
4.6 Ethical Considerations
This study was strictly aligned with the directions and guidelines of the University
Canada West Research Ethics Boards (REB) to confirm that all the ethical standards were
followed during the study. Participation in the survey is completely voluntary, and
participants can leave the survey without penalties. More importantly, personal identification
data will not be recorded in the study. At the beginning of the survey, participants had to
submit their consent to process.
The survey was written in simple, clear language that everyone can understand easily, and if
any participant required help to fill out the data, they could email the research supervisor for
additional support.
Once the study is complete, data will be exported from Qualtrics and saved in an encrypted
file on a password-protected device. No identifying information will be stored with the data.
This data will be stored safely for five years in line with UCW research guidelines, after
which it will be permanently deleted. Since this is a student research project, the data will be
stored by the student researcher and then properly disposed of after the retention period.

43

This research project received formal approval from the University Canada West Research
Ethics Board (UCW ethics agreement number is 202523). This confirms that the study is
aligned with all ethical obligations for conducting research with human participation.

44

Chapter 5: Results and Findings
This chapter outlines the results and findings using statistical analysis of 526 survey
responses. Firstly, it describes descriptive statistics to review demographic characteristics.
Then, data cleaning and identifying missing values ensure the reliability of the dataset.
Measurement model results evaluate the reliability and validity, while the structural model
tests the hypothesis relationships using statistics. Finally, the chapter concludes by
investigating the moderating impact of students’ feedback and highlighting the connection of
independent and dependent variables.
5.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis
5.1.1 Gender
Table 1 below shows the gender distribution among 526 participants. The high percentage of
respondents were female, 314 respondents (59.7%), 208 respondents (39.5%) were male, and
3 respondents (0.6%) preferred not to reveal their gender, and only 1 respondent (0.2%)
selected gender identity as other.
Table 1
Frequency distribution of the gender of respondents.
Gender

Percent
(%)
208
39.5
314
59.7

Frequency

Cumulative Percent
(%)
39.5
99.2

Male
Female
Prefer not to
3
0.6
99.8
say
Other
1
0.2
100
Total
526
100 —
Note. This table is self-created using SPSS software to illustrate the frequency distribution of
the gender of respondents.

45

5.1.2 Age
Table 2 below exhibits the age distribution among 526 individuals who participated in the
survey. Most respondents fell into the age group of 26–30 years (38.2%), followed by 21–25
years (37.8%), and a smaller percentage reflected the age groups of 31–35 (13.7%), 35–40
(5.3%), over 40 (4.2%), and less than 20 (0.4%). And 0.4% preferred not to reveal their age.
The results reveal that more than 75% represent the 20-35-year-old young adult range.
Table 2
Frequency distribution of the age of respondents.
Age Group

Frequency

Percent
(%)
0.4
37.8
38.2
13.7
5.3
4.2

Cumulative
Percent (%)
0.4
38.2
76.4
90.1
95.4
99.6

Less than 20
2
21–25
199
26–30
201
31–35
72
35–40
28
Over 40
22
Prefer not to
2
0.4
100
say
Total
526
100 —
Note. This table is self-created using SPSS software to illustrate the frequency distribution of
the age of respondents.
5.1.3 Program Registered
Table 3 below exhibits the registered program distribution among 526 individuals who
participated in the survey. Most respondents (98.5%) were enrolled in a Master’s. Only 4
respondents (0.8%) were enrolled in Bachelor’s, and 2 respondents each (0.4% each) reported
Other or Prefer not to say. This indicates that the sample mainly consisted of postgraduate
students.

46

Table 3
Frequency distribution of the Program Registered respondents.

Program

Frequency

Percent
(%)

Cumulative
Percent
(%)

Bachelor’s

4

0.8

0.8

Master’s
Other

518
2

98.5
0.4

99.2
99.6

Prefer not
to say

2

0.4

100

Total
526
100 —
Note. This table is self-created using SPSS software to illustrate the frequency distribution of
the Program Registered respondents.
5.1.4 Employment States
Table 4 below exhibits the employment status of the respondents among 526 participants. A
high percentage of participants, 312 (59.3%), reported being employed, 115 (21.9%) stated
that they were unemployed, 69 (13.1%) were seeking employment, and 10 (1.9%) were selfemployed. 9 respondents (1.7%) stated that they are not seeking employment at the moment,
and 2.1% of respondents preferred not to say. These findings indicate that most respondents
were employed while following the studies.

47

Table 4
Frequency distribution of the employment status of respondents.
Employment
Percent
Frequency
Cumulative Percent (%)
Status
(%)
Employed
312
59.3
59.3
Unemployed
115
21.9
81.2
Seeking
69
13.1
94.3
Employment
Not seeking
9
1.7
96
right now
Self10
1.9
97.9
employed
Prefer not to
11
2.1
100
say
Total
526
100 —
Note. This table is self-created using SPSS software to illustrate the frequency distribution of
the employment status of respondents.
5.2 Data Cleaning and Missing Data
To enhance the quality, reliability, and accuracy of the dataset, several data cleaning methods
were used, such as outlier detection and deletion.
At the initial screening process, 580 responses were screened to find the missing data. 31
surveys were removed from the dataset due to incompletion (not more than 20% answered).
23 surveys were removed due to poor response quality, which demonstrated patterned
answering, such as all questions marked as agree.
Five surveys were removed at the outlier detection stage, since they were flagged as extreme
multivariate outliers, the chi-square cut-off values at p < .001, and their response patterns
indicated implausibility.

48

5.3 Measurement Model results
Figure 2
Measurement Model Results

Note. This structural equation model was self-generated using Smart PLS 4 software to
illustrate the relationships among independent variables, dependent variables, and
moderators.
5.3.1 Construct Reliability and Validity
To analyse the reliability and validity of the measurement model results, we used
standardized guidelines for PLS-SEM evaluation (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021). The
analysis included tests for indicator reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity, and
discriminant validity, as per the subsequent table,

49

Table 5
Constructs Sources, factor loadings, Reliability, and AVE
Scale Adaptation Construct

Indicato
r

Facto
r
Loadi
ng

Cron
bach
’s
Alph
a

rho_
A

Adapted from Ali
(2017), Mwita,
Mwilongo, and
Mwamboma
(2024), and
Etomes (2021).

TS1

0.839

0.938

0.939 0.949

0.697

TS2

0.866

TS3

0.807

TS4

0.838

TS5

0.845

TS6

0.837

TS7

0.832

TS8

0.818

CR1

0.879

0.913

0.913 0.935

0.743

CR2

0.883

CR3

0.862

CR4
CR5
CT1

0.839
0.844
0.823

CT2

0.848

CT3

0.832

0.885

0.886 0.916

0.686

CT4

0.817

CT5

0.820

COMM1

0.778

COMM2

0.819

COMM3
COMM4
COMM5
COMM6

0.844
0.811
0.755
0.835

0.927

0.928 0.94

0.664

COMM7

0.800

COMM8

0.853

Adapted from
Tsai et al. (2024)
and Etomes
(2021).

Adapted from
Tsai et al. (2024).

Adapted from
Kricsfalusy,
George, and Reed
(2018), Tsai et al.
(2024), Wu, Xu,
and Philbin
(2023), and
Rohm, Stefl, and
Ward (2021)

Technical
Skills

Creativity

Critical
Thinking
Skills

Communi
cation

Composi
te
Reliabili
ty (CR)

Average
Varianc
e
Extract
ed
(AVE)

50

Adapted from
Collaborat
Kricsfalusy et al. ion
(2018), Tsai et al.
(2024), Parsons
and LepkowskaWhite (2009), and
Rohm et al.
(2021)

COLL1

0.883

COLL2

0.889

COLL3

0.842

COLL4

0.839

COLL5

0.831

Adapted from
Mwita et al.
(2024)

SF1

0.851

SF2

0.904

SF3

0.890

SF4

0.866

Student
feedback

0.909

0.911 0.933

0.734

0.901

0.901 0.931

0.771

Adapted from
Employabi EMP1
0.852
Gaumer, Cotleur, lity
EMP2
0.850
and Arnone
EMP3
0.851
(2012), Mwita et
EMP4
0.843
al. (2024),
EMP5
0.840
Tofighi (2022),
0.715
EMP6
0.837 0.920 0.920 0.938
McCale (2008),
and KramerSimpson,
Newmark, and
Dyke Ford (2015)
Note. This table of constructs, source factor loadings, reliability, and AVE was self-generated
using Smart PLS 4 software for measurement model validation
Factor Loadings: All indicators remarkably exceed the advocated threshold of 0.70 (Hair et
al., 2021), ranging from 0.755 (COMM5) to 0.904 (SF2), demonstrating that all the indicators
are reliable. Also, technical skills indicate the strongest reliability of (0.807–0.866), followed
by Creativity (0.839–0.883), Critical Thinking Skills (0.817–0.848), Communication (0.755–
0.853), Collaboration (0.831–0.889), Student Feedback (0.851–0.904), and Employability
(0.837–0.852) is the lowest.
Internal Consistency Reliability: This dimension was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha and
Composite Reliability (CR). As all indicators exceed the recommended threshold of 0.70
(Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), Cronbach’s alpha ensures the internal reliability of the sample
dataset.
51

rho_A Reliability: As all indicators overrun the recommended threshold of 0.70, it indicates
a steady and reliable measurement.
Convergent Validity: This dimension was evaluated using Average Variance Extracted
(AVE). Since every indicator reveals the AVE value was over 0.50, this specifies that more
than half of the variance in their constructs, which aligns with the recommended threshold.
Creativity shows the strong convergent validity of 0.839–0.883, which implies robust
alignment between constructors and indicators.
Construct-Level Insights
Technical Skills demonstrates high reliability (α = 0.938, CR = 0.949) and AVE = 0.697,
denoting that technical skills were developed by participating CBPs.
Creativity and Critical Thinking indicate high reliability (Creativity: AVE = 0.743; Critical
Thinking: AVE = 0.686), denoting that meta-skills were developed by CBPs.
Communication had the lowest AVE (0.664), but it remains in the acceptable range and
demonstrates that meta-skills were developed through CBPs.
Collaboration has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.909 and an AVE of 0.734, highlighting group
collaboration skills as a meta-skill, developed over CBPs.
Student Feedback has a high AVE (0.771), which reveals that feedback outlined students’
skill growth and employability confidence.
The employability construct (α = 0.920; AVE = 0.715) emphasizes that participating in CBPs
efficiently fosters students’ employability skills.

52

5.3.2 Discriminant Validity
Table 6
Discriminant validity by Fornell-Lacker
Collabora Communic
tion
ation

Creati
vity

Critic Employab Stude
al
ility
nt
thinki
feedb
ng
ack

Techni
cal
skills

Collaborati 0.857
on
Communic 0.799
0.815
ation
Creativity
0.805
0.813
0.862
Critical
0.816
0.824
0.837
0.828
thinking
Employabil 0.826
0.832
0.769
0.757 0.845
ity
Student
0.815
0.803
0.746
0.741 0.837
0.828
feedback
Technical
0.791
0.811
0.739
0.724 0.836
0.75
0.835
skills
Note. This table of Discriminant validity by Fornell-Lacker was self-generated using Smart
PLS 4 software to evaluate discriminant validity
Discriminant validity was measured using both the Fornell–Larcker criterion (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981) and the Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) (Henseler,
Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015). Both models provide a stronger evaluation and respond to
academic literature to avoid reliance on a one model (Franke & Sarstedt, 2019).
Fornell–Larcker Criterion
Fornell and Larcker (1981) stated that the square root of a construct’s average variance
extracted (AVE) should be greater than its correlations with other constructs. A square root of
the AVE value over 0.70 is usually in an acceptable range, showing satisfactory discriminant
validity (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021). In this research, all constructs fulfilled this
condition. For example, Employability (√AVE = 0.845) was higher than its correlation with

53

Communication (0.832), and Student Feedback (√AVE = 0.878) exceeded its correlation with
Employability (0.837). This validates that the constructs explain further variance in their own
indicators than they mixed with other constructs.
HTMT Criterion
Discriminant validity was further explained through the HTMT method. Henseler et al.
(2015) suggested that the HTMT criteria should be below 0.85 for theoretically distinct
constructs; meanwhile, values below 0.90 are considered adequate in social science research.
In this research, all HTMT values complied with the 0.85 requirement. For instance,
Collaboration–Communication (HTMT = 0.776), Technical Skills–Employability (HTMT =
0.789), and Critical Thinking–Employability (HTMT = 0.838) remained below the threshold,
indicating that constructs have discriminant validity.
Interpretation
Collectively, the Fornell–Larcker and HTMT results reveal that the constructs are
empirically distinct, regardless of moderate-to-high correlations between some meta-skill
measurements. These higher correlations (e.g., Collaboration–Communication) are
theoretically assumed, as they reflect an interdependent variable of the broader Meta-Skills
higher-order construct. Significantly, the constant satisfaction of both criteria strengthens
the validity of the measurement model, ensuring that the constructs represent unique
dimensions of employability while supporting the theoretical framework of the “4C’s” into a
higher-order construct.

54

Table 7
Discriminant Validity by HTMT Criterion
Collabora Communic
tion
ation

Creati
vity

Critic
al
thinki
ng

Stude
nt
Feedb
ack

Employa
bility

Techni
cal
skills

Collaborati
on
Communic 0.776
ation
Creativity
0.793
0.768
Critical
0.731
0.678
0.630
thinking
Student
0.652
0.503
0.626
0.741
feedback
Employabil 0.782
0.756
0.539
0.838 0.787
ity
Technical
0.797
0.737
0.599
0.794 0.678
0.789
skills
Note. This table of Discriminant validity HTMT criterion was self-generated using Smart
PLS 4 software to evaluate construct validity
5.3.3 Interpretation of Collinearity Statistics (VIF)
Table 8
Collinearity Statistics (VIF) outer Model
VIF
Collaboration -> Meta-Skills
3.914
Communication -> Meta-Skills
4.215
Creativity -> Meta-Skills
4.07
Critical Thinking -> Meta-Skills
4.346
Meta Skills -> Employability
4.229
Student Feedback -> Employability
3.392
Technical Skills -> Employability
3.405
Note. This table of Collinearity Statistics (VIF) outer Model was self-generated using Smart
PLS 4 software to measure multicollinearity
The Collinearity Statistics are measured using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) to evaluate
whether predictor constructs in the outer and inner models revealed multicollinearity.

55

In PLS-SEM, VIF values below 5.0 are considered acceptable and accurate, which
demonstrates that collinearity does not bias the path coefficient assessments (Hair, Hult,
Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021).
Outer Model (Second-Order Construct: Meta-Skills):
Collaboration (VIF = 3.914), Communication (VIF = 4.215), Creativity (VIF = 4.070), and
Critical Thinking (VIF = 4.346) all result in VIF values less than the critical threshold of 5.
This shows that although the four criteria of Meta-skills (creativity, critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication) are moderately correlated, they remained in the
acceptable range. Thus, collinearity is not a threat or becomes problematic.
Table 9
Collinearity Statistics (VIF) outer Model
Statement
COLL1
COLL1
COLL2
COLL2
COLL3
COLL3
COLL4
COLL5
COLL5
COMM1
COMM1
COMM2
COMM2
COMM3
COMM3
COMM4
COMM4
COMM5
COMM5
COMM6
COMM6
COMM7
COMM7

VIF
2.952
3.352
3.019
3.746
2.312
2.824
2.295
2.425
2.204
2.189
2.651
3.036
2.482
2.926
2.719
2.34
2.622
2.094
2.135
2.916
2.55
2.229
2.457
56

COMM8
3.119
COMM8
2.861
CR1
3.227
CR1
2.908
CR2
3.017
CR2
3.342
CR3
2.618
CR3
2.871
CR4
2.574
CR4
2.281
CR5
2.312
CR5
2.811
CT1
2.43
CT1
2.095
CT2
2.728
CT2
2.319
CT3
2.591
CT3
2.145
CT4
2.347
CT4
2.024
CT5
2.568
CT5
2.008
EMP1
2.571
EMP2
2.557
EMP3
2.556
EMP4
2.454
EMP5
2.408
EMP6
2.402
SF1
2.246
SF2
3.102
SF3
2.884
SF4
2.542
TS1
2.745
TS2
3.158
TS3
2.317
TS4
2.746
TS5
2.768
TS6
2.679
TS7
2.554
TS8
2.416
Note. This table of Collinearity Statistics (VIF) outer Model was self-generated using Smart
PLS 4 software for collinearity assessment

57

Inner Model (Predictors of Employability):
Meta-skills (VIF = 4.229), Student Feedback (VIF = 3.392), and Technical Skills (VIF =
3.405) all revealed adequate Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values.
These findings point out that the determinants of Employability are theoretically related but
statistically distinct, indicating that zero multicollinearity bias.
The moderately high VIF value for Meta-skills (4.229) shows a strong relationship with
employability; nevertheless, it remains in the acceptable range, confirming that it does not
compromise the reliability and accuracy of regression estimations.
In summary, all constructs are associated with recommended thresholds, and it is ensured that
path coefficient estimation in the structural model is strong and unbiased by overlapping
predictors.
5.3.4 Robustness Checks
To mitigate the potential heterogeneity, we carried out supplementary robustness checks.
First, we incorporated previous work experience and program of study as control factors in
the structural model; nevertheless, the hypothesized relationship remained constant, with no
substantial changes in the strength or direction of the study. Second, a multi-group analysis
was implemented to evaluate and compare students who were currently employed and not
employed. The path estimates between the two groups did not highlight significant changes,
which shows that the model is reliable across employment status. Overall, these robustness
checks demonstrate confidence that the results are not affected by sample heterogeneity and
that the structural relationships are constant among different student profiles.

58

5.4 Structural Model results
The structural model was developed to analyse the hypothesized relationships between the
variables. The analysis was handled in SmartPLS 4 using the bootstrapping technique with
5,000 resamples to analyse the significance of path coefficients.
Figure 3
Structural Model Results

Note. The structural model results were self-generated using Smart PLS 4 software to
illustrate the relationships among variables and the moderator.
Higher-Order Construct: Meta-skills
A significant aspect of this study is the operationalization of Meta-skills as a second-order
construct. Meta-skills covered four first-order reflective constructs, including 4C’s, which
represent the wider range of higher-order employability skills. Since both the second-order
and first-order constructs were reflective, the repeated indicators method was applied for
59

better analysis (Becker, Klein, & Wetzels, 2012). This method is extensively suggested for
reflective hierarchical component models as it enables the second-order construct to receive
all measurement indicators from its dimensions, which safeguards the accurate estimation of
the overall factor structure.
5.5 Path Coefficients and Hypothesis Testing
Table 10 below shows the path coefficients, standard errors, and significance levels for
testing the hypothesized relationships. Path coefficients are acceptable at β ≥ 0.10, and
hypotheses are significant when p < .05 (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021).
Hypothesis 1 (H1) : Technical Skills → Employability
Technical Skills suggested a positive, constructive, and significant impact on Employability
with β = 0.268, and p < 0.001. This result validates that technical skills enhanced by
participating in CBPs play a vital role in emphasising international students’ perceived
employability outcomes.
Hypothesis 2 (H2) : Meta-skills → Employability
Meta-skills suggested a positive and significant impact on Employability with β = 0.271 and
p < 0.001. These results highlight the significance of higher-order intellectual and
interpersonal skills for international students’ perceived employability outcomes. This
validates the viewpoint that employers prioritize graduates who can integrate technical
proficiencies with transferable meta-skills of collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, and
communication skills.
Hypothesis 2a -2d (H2a–H2d) : First-Order Constructs → Meta-Skills
All four first-order constructs significantly contributed to the second-order Meta-skills
construct, with the β and p values as follows,
•

Creativity (β = 0.242, p < 0.001)
60

•

Critical Thinking (β = 0.234, p < 0.001)

•

Collaboration (β = 0.206, p < 0.001)

•

Communication (β = 0.384, p < 0.001)

According to these test results, communication was reflected as the strongest contributor to
meta-skills, followed by creativity, critical thinking, and finally, collaboration showed the
minimum contribution to meta-skills. All these key findings recommend that the four metaskills, communication skills, act as the most significant measurement, aligning with previous
studies that mentioned communication as one of the top employability skills for students
(Wu, Xu, & Philbin, 2023).
Table 10
Path coefficients and Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis Hypothesis
relationship

Standard Sample Standard P
Decision
Beta
mean
deviation values
(M)
(STDEV)

H1

Technical
Skills ->
Employability

0.268

0.273

0.057

0.000

Supported

H2

Meta-skills >Employability

0.271

0.272

0.072

0.000

Supported

H2a

Creativity>Meta-skills

0.242

0.243

0.007

0.000

Supported

H2b

Critical
thinking>Meta-skills

0.234

0.235

0.007

0.000

Supported

H2c

Collaboration>Meta-skills

0.206

0.207

0.007

0.000

Supported

H2d

Communication 0.384
-> Meta-skills

0.383

0.009

0.000

Supported

Note. This table of Path coefficients and Hypothesis testing was self-generated using Smart
PLS 4 software for hypothesis testing
61

Model Insights
In this study, both Technical Skills and Meta-skills are considered equally important and
significant elements of Employability, with a similar range of path coefficients. This finding
reveals that employability is a multi-dimensional force; students’ job readiness for the labor
market demand depends on domain-specific technical skills and adaptable soft skills.
The high-order level of Meta-skills also illustrates conceptual sophistication by indicating
that the 4C’s of meta-skills can be characterised as an integrated capability framework. All
four meta-skills together contribute to the perceived employability outcomes of international
students, revealing that employers do not require one skill set but also the integration of all
technical and meta-skills to enable students to align with employers’ expectations.
Coefficient of Determination (R²)
R-squared demonstrates the coefficient determination from the proportion of variance
explained by its independent variables, and adjusted R-squared corrects for the value for
model complexity from the number of predictors and sample size, and it avoids
overestimating the explanatory power (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021). This research
model indicated a very strong explanatory power between the independent and dependent
variables.
For Employability; R² = 0.856 and adjusted R² = 0.855. This indicates that 85.6% of the
variance in the Employability is explained by the Technical Skills, Meta-skills, the moderator
of Student Feedback, and their relation. According to Chin (1998), when R² values are 0.67 or
above, they suggest high explanatory power, positioning this model as strong and reliable.
For meta-skills; R² = 0.999 and adjusted R² = 0.999. This shows that, due to the repetitive
higher-order construct, all indicators of its sub-categories are obtained. Consequently, the R²

62

of meta-skills is close to 1.0, suggesting that variance is totally explained by four lower-order
constructs, 4C’s, including Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration.
Table 11
R-squared and R-squared adjusted
R-square

R-square adjusted

Employability

0.856

0.855

Meta-skills

0.999

0.999

Note. This table of R-squared and R-squared adjusted was self-generated using Smart PLS 4
software to measure the Coefficient of Determination
Effect Sizes (f²)
Effect sizes provide insights into the individual contribution of predictor constructs to the
endogenous variables (Cohen, 1988).
Table 12
F-square

Meta-skills -> Employability
Student Feedback -> Employability
Student Feedback X Meta-skills ->
Employability
Student Feedback X Technical Skills ->
Employability
Technical Skills -> Employability

f-square
0.098
0.248
0.171
0.252
0.147

Note. This table of F-squared was self-generated using Smart PLS 4 software to measure the
individual contribution of each predictor to the R²
Effect sizes (f²) were measured through Cohen’s (1988) standards; the values of 0.02, 0.15,
and 0.35 denote small, medium, and large effects, respectively. Technical Skills (f² = 0.147)
63

have a medium effect on employability, while Meta-skills (f² = 0.098) explain a small-tomedium effect. Student Feedback reveals a medium-to-large direct effect (f² = 0.248) and
strengthens perceived employability outcomes over the moderation effect, while Student
Feedback × Meta-skills (f² = 0.171) gives a medium effect, and Student Feedback × Technical
Skills (f² = 0.252) gives a medium-to-large effect. These research findings highlight
feedback’s significant role as a contextual driver that increases the transformation of skills
into employability (Kolb, 2015).
Predictive Relevance (Q²predict)
The predictive validity of the study was evaluated using the PLSpredict procedure (Shmueli
et al., 2019). Q²predict values higher than 0.00 suggested predictive relevance, with values of
0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 demonstrating small, medium, and large predictive relevance,
respectively (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021).
For Employability, the model achieved a Q² predict value of 0.851, which is greater than the
0.35 standard, and therefore it exhibits substantial predictive relevance. Prediction errors
were low (RMSE = 0.393; MAE = 0.277), indicating that the model predicts employability
outcomes with high accuracy and reliability. For Meta-skills, Q²predict value of 0.999, with
very low prediction errors (RMSE = 0.032; MAE = 0.023). This ideal value exhibits the
hierarchical modelling approach, where the second-order construct receives all indicators
from its first-order dimensions, resulting in complete variance explanation.
In summary, these research findings reinforce that the model is not only explanatory (as
proven by high R² values) but also predictive, suggesting substantial practical effectiveness.
Notably, the strong predictive relevance for Employability shows that the model can be
confidently used by instructors and policymakers to predict international students’
employability readiness when participating in CBPs.
64

Table 13
Predictive Relevance
Q²predict

RMSE

MAE

EMPLOYABILITY

0.851

0.393

0.277

Meta-skills

0.999

0.032

0.023

Note. This table of predictive relevance was self-generated using Smart PLS 4 software to
measure accuracy and relevance
Analysis of the Moderating effect of Student feedback
Regardless of its direct effect on Employability, the research observed the moderating effect
of Student Feedback in the relationship between employability skills (Technical and Metaskills) and Employability. Moderation assessment was conducted through interaction terms in
SmartPLS, with significance tested through bootstrapping (5,000 resamples).
Table 14
Path Coefficients and Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis Hypothesis
relationship
H3a

Student Feedback X
Technical Skills ->
Employability

Standard Sample Standard P
Decision
Beta
mean
deviation values
(M)
(STDEV)
-0.282

-0.272

0.054

0.000

Supported

H3b

Student Feedback X
0.219
0.21
0.047
0.000 Supported
Meta-skills ->
Employability
Note. This table of Path Coefficients and Hypothesis Testing was self-generated using Smart
PLS 4 software to test the hypothesis of moderation effects
Technical Skills × Student Feedback → Employability
The findings indicate a negative and significant moderating influence of Student Feedback on
the connection between Technical Skills and Employability (β = –0.282, p < 0.001). This
65

finding indicates that when student feedback was low, technical skills strongly predicted
employability. Also, when student feedback was strong, employability depended less on
technical skills and more on a combination of both skills.
Meta-skills × Student Feedback → Employability
Similarly, Student Feedback positively moderates the relationship between Meta-skills and
Employability (β = 0.219, p < 0.001). This suggests that when student feedback was low,
meta-skills had a small impact on employability. This relationship reveals that student
feedback unlocks the employability potential of meta-skills of international students through
communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking. Altogether, with a high level
of student feedback, meta-skills become a valuable employability advantage to the
international students.
Overall, the moderation analysis offers important understandings into how student feedback
defines the employability outcomes of international students. The results indicate a dual role
of feedback.
•

It reduces dependence on technical skills alone, demonstrating that employability in
the current job market cannot be accomplished by only developing technical skills.

•

It magnifies the effect of meta-skills, showing that student feedback enables them to
interpret their creativity, communication, collaboration, and critical thinking into solid
career readiness.

Student feedback creates employability skills that are more credible and helps them to
articulate and demonstrate these skills to potential employers.

66

Slope Analysis of Moderating Effects
To visually interpret the moderating effect of Student Feedback, a simple slope study was
carried out by plotting the interaction influences at three different levels of the moderator:
•

Low feedback (–1 SD)

•

Mean feedback

•

High feedback (+1 SD)

Student Feedback × Technical Skills → Employability
For Technical Skills, student feedback highly reduced the strength of the relationship with
employability by indicating β = –0.282 and p < 0.001. Figure 4 illustrates that technical skills
strongly predicted employability when feedback was less; nevertheless, when feedback
increased, the slope flattened. When students reflect low levels of feedback (–1 SD), the
slope increases strongly and positively, which indicates that technical skills deliberately
enhance employability when student feedback is less.
These findings validate the hypothesis and indicate that student feedback reduces the
excessive reliance on technical skills and prioritizes both technical and meta-skills for
students’ career development.

67

Figure 4
Moderation analysis plot- Technical Skills

Note. This graph is self-generated using Smart PLS 4 software to illustrate students’
feedback’s moderative effect on technical skills and employability.
Student Feedback × Meta-skills → Employability
Figure 5 shows the moderating impact of Student Feedback on the relationship between
Meta-skills and Employability with (β = 0.219, p < 0.001). The slope clearly describes that:
•

When student feedback is low (–1 SD), the slope is flat, demonstrating a weak
association and relationship between meta-skills and employability.

68

•

When student feedback is at the mean level, the slope is positive, indicating that metaskills contribute positively to the employability.

•

When student feedback is high (+1 SD), the slope increases strongly, indicating a
strong positive relationship between meta-skills and employability.

These findings validate the hypothesis and indicate that student feedback strengthens the
meta-skills while influencing employability. Similarly, meta-skills only become a real
employability benefit when students are facilitated in refining and demonstrating them.
Figure 5
Moderation analysis plot- Meta-skills

Note. This graph is self-generated using Smart PLS 4 software to illustrate students’
feedback’s moderative effect on meta-skills and employability.
69

Finally, these findings emphasize that feedback redefines the significance of technical and
meta-skills in employability outcomes. Technical skills remain significant but are less
influential when feedback is high, while meta-skills become critical in influencing
employability. This is associated with experiential learning theory (Kolb, 2015), as it
highlights that skills transform into meaningful outcomes when students regularly reflect on
feedback. In post-secondary education, student feedback not only improves academic
performance but also transfers technical and meta-skills into tangible career advantages.

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Chapter 6: Discussion and Theoretical and Practical Contributions of the Study
This chapter outlines the findings of the study by connecting the systematic results
with research objectives and previous literature. The chapter begins with the interpretation of
results on how the hypothesis was tested and the relationship among variables and the
moderator. Since this research employs a cross-sectional design and depends on self-assessed
data, the outcomes of this study reflect correlational patterns, not definitive causal effects.
Secondly, it discussed the practical contribution of the studies discussed, the benefits
to students, educators, and employers, and the employability outcomes of engaging with
CBPs. Finally, the chapter concludes with a theoretical implication by discussing how this
study supports the theory by making a clear, broader, and detailed framework about technical
and meta-skills and how students’ feedback influences the employability of international
students.
6.1 Discussion of the results
The statistical outcomes of the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling
(PLS SEM) deliver a clear indication that participating in CBPs is linked to significant
enhancements in technical and meta-skills, which influence the perceived employability of
international students. From this model, we have identified that technical and meta-skills
appear as strong positive predictors of employability, which strengthens the main hypothesis.
The statistical measure of path coefficient proves that both technical skills to employability (β
≈ 0.27, p < 0.001) and meta-skills to employability (β ≈ 0.27, p < 0.001) independently
contribute to higher employability. As such, students who have high technical skills such as
computer literacy, industry-specific knowledge, hardware handling, and transferable metaskills have high confidence, are well prepared, and are employable. The previous studies by
Hossain et al. (2020) stated that technical skills and soft skills have a constructive influence

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on graduates’ employability, and emphasised that having a balance of these essential skills is
a crucial factor for sustaining a career.
More importantly, the data analysis validated Meta-skills as a second-order construct,
encompassing the 4Cs of creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. All
sub-skills contributed substantially to the second-order construct, and communication
demonstrated the highest relative influence. This recommends that the development of one
soft skill can influence the other related soft skills through practical learning from CBPs. This
aligns with the previous studies by Tofighi (2022), stating that marketing students involved in
CBPs exhibited advancements in analytical thinking, creativity, and accountability that are
hard to accomplish from in-class learning.
Furthermore, through this analysis, we have proved that student feedback significantly
moderates the technical and meta-skills on the employability of international students. For the
meta-skills interaction term, the coefficient indicates β ≈ +0.22, p < 0.001, supported by the
fact that when students provide high-quality feedback on skills learn through CBPs, their
impact on employability becomes stronger. For instance, student feedback plays a vital role
as a moderator, since it indicates the self-evaluation of how CBPs build technical and metaskills and their impact on employability. The positive feedback reveals the success of the
client-based learning, and it helps educators and policymakers to further improve strategies to
boost the employability of international students.
The overall model fit shows R² ≈ 0.856 for employability, which was very high,
demonstrating that the combination of technical and meta-skills, and student feedback,
describes a large proportion of why students perceive themselves as employable after
completing a CBP. This strong explanatory power, even though partly attributable to the
common-method self-reporting, determines that our model successfully captured the

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significant components of employability enhancement within the given data set. Moreover,
the target population is considered as international students in Canada, who usually face
difficulties being employable due to a lack of Canadian experience and exposure. Both
technical and meta-skills are equally essential for international students to build additional
skills to overcome these barriers effectively. CBPs, as an experimental learning platform, can
foster employability skills as an encouraging indicator. In conclusion, the research findings
and existing literature offer practical evidence to validate the hypothesis, and they pave the
way for further investigation and practical applications in the educational and professional
settings.
6.2 Practical Contributions of the Study
This research gives some practical contributions to learners, educators, policy-makers,
employers, and society. Firstly, to strengthen the curriculum design. The research findings
reveal that technical and meta-skills significantly influence the employability of international
students. That creates a strong message to post-secondary institutions and curriculum
designers to restructure the programs to obtain a balanced skill set. The traditional in-class
learning is not sufficient to deliver practical knowledge; therefore, including CBP learning in
the curriculum would actively develop soft skills and students can obtain practical experience
when working with real-world clients. These active learning methods support students in
linking the theoretical learning to the practical settings. The previous literature emphasizes
that participating in live CBPs can boost the employability of students (Tofighi, 2022), and
our empirical results provide a solid foundation for scaling up initiatives. For instance,
educational institutions can partner with platforms like Riipen to develop capstone projects,
hence students can train in professional settings while developing technical and meta-skills.
Secondly, this study will benefit career services and student preparation. Career services can
utilize the research findings to initiate career development programs, such as workshops or
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coaching sessions that are specially targeted to enhance soft skills. Moreover, career services
can motivate students to highlight the CBPs’ learnings and practical experiences on their
resume and encourage them to express the real-world skills during the interviews. Students
should be clearly guided to communicate the technical skills they obtained and the soft skills
they exhibited during a CBP to transfer these skills and project experience into employability
skills that appeal to potential employers.
Thirdly, employers and corporate partners benefited from this study. Employers and corporate
partners who are committed to the educational institutions can recommend more employers to
participate in CBPs. For instance, encourage them to offer projects, provide internships and
mentorship opportunities, and provide constructive feedback that aligns with the market
standards. Usually, employers benefit from allowing students to participate in their
organizational concerns, since they can get early access to the talent and innovative ideas
observed by the students. Consequently, a CBP strengthens the talent pipeline objectives and
contributes to corporate social responsibility. The research findings show that employer
contributions to these projects are critical, since students can be prepared and equipped with
diverse skills that employers are expecting. Nevertheless, employers generally regret that
graduate students lack soft skills, which they cannot transfer into the workplace setting. The
research finding demonstrates that employers can prepare students to become well-rounded
future professionals by providing constructive feedback from CBPs.
Apart from the student feedback, the structured feedback from the educators or the clients is
essential in improving the employability outcomes of the student. The previous studies reveal
that CBPs, along with constructive feedback, build a strong reliability and confidence in the
proficiencies and improve project deliverables (Childers et al., 2020). When educators and
clients deliver structured feedback during the project period, students receive better
acknowledgement of their competencies and alignment with the organization's standards
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(Ramukumba, 2021). Moreover, learning through CBPs with constructive feedback from
clients and instructors strengthens students’ professional skills and promotes self-efficacy
while applying academic knowledge in practical settings (Kricsfalusy, George, & Reed,
2018). Altogether, these perspectives highlight that structured feedback practices from clients
and instructors during CBPs can improve employability outcomes other than the students’
self-reflective feedback.
6.3 Theoretical contributions of the study
This research contributes to some important theoretical aspects. Firstly, it developed a
research model that statistically confirmed and connected the role of technical and meta-skills
to graduate employability for international students. Though previous studies validated that
both technical and soft skills impact career readiness, studies usually treat these two factors
separately or in different frameworks. Our study linked both skills into one framework,
mentioning that both skills have an exceptional impact on the perceived employability of the
graduate students. This framework strengthens the human capital theory (Tett, 2024) and the
employability frameworks by emphasizing multidimensional aspects of human capital and
technical and soft skills, which make graduate students more adaptable and effective in the
work environment. Moreover, our research findings comply with the recent graduate
employability studies (Hossain et al., 2020; Mwita et al., 2024) as well.
Secondly, our literature review indicates that both technical and meta-skills simultaneously
impact the employability; no single dimension can be used to underscore the influence.
Moreover, our research findings validate the second-order Meta-Skills (creativity, critical
thinking, collaboration, and communication). This is derived from the concept of the 4Cs of
the 21st-century skills framework. Additionally, future hypothesizing on graduate
employability can integrate a hierarchical perspective of meta-skills by understanding that

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interventions targeting one meta-skill can affect other skills due to the interconnectivity of
variables.
Thirdly, our study focused on client-based learning and experimental learning literature, by
emphasising the role of feedback for employability outcomes. According to Kolb’s (1984)
experimental learning theory and associated models, which highlight that feedback and
interpretation are critical aspects of learning, a few quantitative studies have also analyzed the
role of feedback in influencing the employability outcomes
Lastly, this study focuses on international students in Canada. There are no previous studies
addressing this population in employability studies. Theoretical frameworks for graduate
employability have been broadly studied, targeting domestic students or specific fields.
Relatively less attention and consideration have been paid to international students in Canada
who face cultural barriers, language barriers, and a lack of Canadian work experience. Our
research findings reveal that technical and soft skills, as established constructs, function
similarly for international students, both serving as significant predictors of employability,
thereby enhancing the validity of existing theories to this distinct population.

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Chapter 7: Conclusion, Limitation, and Future Scope of the Study
The last chapter outlines the conclusion with limitations and suggestions. The
limitations discuss the boundaries of the study, and they have a direct influence on the results
and interpretation of the outcomes. Finally, the chapter identifies areas for improvement for
future studies by delivering directions to expand and refine the understanding generated by
findings.
7.1 Conclusion
The purpose of this research is to explore the impact of CBPs on the employability of
international students in Canada. The study focuses on the advancement of technical and
meta-skills and the moderation factor of student feedback. The research findings reveal that
CBPs are an influential academic approach that enhances the employability of international
students. Through a large sample survey to collect data and structural equation modelling to
statistical analytics, we identified that international students who participated in client-based
experimental projects obtain significant technical and meta-skills which contribute to the
perceived employability of the international graduates. Furthermore, the research identifies
that technical and meta-skills have equally significant impacts through the study. In our
research model, technical skills like industry-specific skills and hardware handling, and metaskills such as creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication skills, each made
a unique contribution to enhance the employability. These findings align with the key
conclusion that employability is maximized when students are equipped to have both soft
skills and transferable skills needed to adapt to new situations and work environments
successfully, and technical skills are required to perform the job well. Due to methodological
constraints, mainly based on cross-sectional, self-reported data, the observed relationship
demonstrated association rather than causation.

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Moreover, our research provides new insight into the role of student feedback in experimental
learning. We found that student feedback moderates the relationship between technical and
meta-skills and employability, and we proved it statistically. Nevertheless, the positive
student feedback reveals how strongly participating in CBPs strengthens their employability,
and it will provide guidelines to educators and policymakers to make adjustments based on
the students’ perceptions to achieve the maximum outcome. Therefore, student feedback acts
as guidelines that help them to reflect on the employability outcomes, performance, and
skills, and provide better alignment with their learning and employer expectations.
Lastly, this study is beneficial to the higher educational sector to enhance graduate
employability, especially international students in Canada who often face different barriers in
the job market. Through the empirical observations of the study, we identified that
participating in CBPs not only addresses the gap between traditional in-class learning and
employability requirements but also highlights the factors that make students employable.
Through these projects, international students in Canada can obtain domestic work
experience, exposure to Canadian work culture, prove their abilities to potential employers,
build confidence, and eventually become highly employable. We encourage universities,
post-secondary institutions, and policymakers to expand such opportunities to international
students in Canada to get real-time work experience. Implementing these projects, the gap
between traditional in-class learning and employment can be narrowed, and it benefits
students, employers, and society.
To implement these actionable steps, we recommend two program-level actions as a final
step. The first program-level action is to require each student to complete a minimum of one
CBP assessed using a transparent meta-skills framework and technical skills, which are
outlined in the syllabus and integrated into grading alongside technical outcomes. Second
program-level action is to integrate two feedback checkpoints during the mid-project stage
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and end project stage, which gives students clear and brief written feedback guidance with 2
or 3 actionable steps based on rubric standards for future improvement, and allows instructors
to assess how client-based projects impact the skill enhancement. These actionable steps are
in line with our research findings, where the student feedback is connected to a stronger
conversion of meta-skills and technical skills into perceived employability of the students.
Based on that, these actionable steps are both skills and a feedback approach. make visible to
potential employers while ensuring that the research findings are framed in line with the
study’s cross-sectional and self-report design. Incorporating this process into Canadian postsecondary educational programs would benefit students by reducing first-job friction and
minimizing the gap between academic studies and industry requirements.
7.2 Limitations
There are certain limitations that were identified in this study. Firstly, this study
heavily relies on cross-sectional self-report data, which only address the skills and
employability perspectives, without considering the causation. Also, measurements were
taken to minimize the bias, but the possibility of inflated relationships remains. Longitudinal
or multi-source data, such as employer evaluations, can improve causal implications.
Secondly, the generalizability of sample distribution is limited, which means that the
participants were selected mainly through business-related programs (master’s and bachelor’s
students), and the sample is not diversified with other subject areas such as art and STEM. In
the Canadian context, experimental learning and English communication are common;
therefore, the study cannot be applied to other countries due to differences in the educational
system, labour market, and language preferences.
Third, the study measured perceived employability other than career readiness. This
highlights the student’s confidence to become employable, but career confidence does not

79

always turn into job accomplishment. The student feedback measurement cannot always BE
true since students with high confidence did not consider the market barriers or challenges.
To measure the perceived employability effectively, future research should connect students
to actual employment outcomes and adopt multidimensional models of employability, such as
self-efficacy and social capital.
The fourth limitation is that self-reflection on employability skills and student feedback have
high potential for response and recall bias. For instance, if the student has a negative
experience with a CBP, responses become uniform and inaccurate. To enhance the rigor,
future studies should collect the data from the project deliverables, such as the actual quality
of the CBP completion, and use independent tests to measure the employability skills.
Finally, the study considered the CBPs in general without reflecting on project scope,
duration, and client engagement. Since the CBPs are not unique, these variations can
influence the outcomes. Therefore, future research should capture some information, such as
project level and scope, to develop an accurate outcome.
7.3 Future Scope of the Study
Grounded on research outcomes and limitations, some scopes were identified for
future implications.
Longitudinal and Causal Studies. Instead of analyzing the relationship between
skills and employability, Longitudinal and Causal Studies can be utilized to evaluate causes
and improvements in skills and employability outcomes. To measure the skill development
through the CBPs, outcomes can be measured at the beginning and the end of the project for
better interpretation of the results. Also, use the Quasi-experimental approaches such as

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comparing the student skills with and without client projects, hence researchers can measure
the real impact of the client project.
Utilize Diverse Contexts and Populations. To safeguard the accuracy and reliability of the
data, it is important to include participants from different countries and backgrounds to test
generalizability. Use comparative studies to analyse the differences between the domestic and
international students. Use Cross-disciplinary exploration to analyze the CBP impact through
diverse fields such as STEM and health science.
Granular Analysis of Meta-Skills. As our conceptualization of Meta-Skills is a secondorder, we need to measure the impact of each skill. The future research should focus on
evaluating meta-skills based on different sectors, so that researchers can analyze which metaskill is more related to a specific field. Combining employer interviews with student data
helps to identify whether the client projects are providing the soft skills employers really
want.
Mechanisms of Feedback. The student feedback as a moderator required deep exploration.
Qualitative studies using structured interviews and focus groups can further examine how
feedback strengthens or weakens the relationships. Moreover, the discrepancies between
feedback types, sources, and timing may impact student feedback in different ways.
Career Outcomes and Employer Perspectives. Future studies should connect students’
perception with potential career outcomes, such as how promptly students get better jobs after
completing CBPs using longitudinal follow-up, and compare the results with students who
don’t participate in the client project. arranging surveys or interviews with employers to
observe feedback and analyze the employer’s perspective on the employability of the student

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who participated in the client-based projects, and analyze the factors that impact
employability and influence hiring.

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Appendixes
Appendix – 01 Survey Statements for Exploring the impact of Client-Based projects on the
Employability of International students
Technical Skills
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

The client-based projects that

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Ali, 2017

were part of the courses I did

Strongly Agree (7)

were structured in a way that
increased my technical skills.
The client-based projects helped

Strongly Disagree (1) to

me to gain subject-specific

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

knowledge.
I gained the ability to finish

Strongly Disagree (1) to

work assignments with accuracy

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

and within a timeframe.
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

am effective in using IT-related

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

technologies in work or project
environments.
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

can adapt quickly to new

Strongly Agree (7)

Etomes, 2021

situations or changes in project
or work settings.

93

Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

can manage and process large

Strongly Agree (7)

Etomes, 2021

amounts of new information
when completing tasks.
I can apply the knowledge I’ve

Strongly Disagree (1) to

gained in practical, real-world

Strongly Agree (7)

Etomes, 2021

situations.
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

can effectively find, and access

Strongly Agree (7)

Etomes, 2021

new information needed to
complete tasks or solve
problems.
Creativity
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Tsai et al., 2024

often propose effective solutions

Strongly Agree (7)

when facing problems
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

often come up with innovative

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

and practical ideas during
projects or tasks
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

am often seen as a key source of

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

creative ideas in group activities

94

Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

usually take the opportunity to

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

showcase creativity in learning
activities
The client-based projects helped

Strongly Disagree (1) to

me to gain analysis and

Strongly Agree (7)

Etomes, 2021

problem-solving abilities
Critical Thinking
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Tsai et al., 2024

have developed my critical

Strongly Agree (7)

thinking skills in making
reasoned judgments from
opposing perspectives
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

am more willing to consider

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

another point of view to evaluate
how strong or valid it is.
By doing client-based projects,

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Tsai et al., 2024

when I face a difficult problem, I Strongly Agree (7)
can usually find a new way of
solving it.
The client-based project

Strongly Disagree (1) to

encourage me to examine

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

95

questions or problems
differently
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

am more willing to change and

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

accept new ideas in learning or
work settings
Communication
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

Client-based projects offered me

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Kricsfalusy et al.,

the opportunity to develop and

Strongly Agree (7)

2018

The client-based project

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Kricsfalusy et al.,

improves my ability to

Strongly Agree (7)

2018

The client-based project has

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Tsai et al., 2024

helped in developing my skills

Strongly Agree (7)

apply my communication skills
(written, oral, and visual)

communicate my ideas in a realworld context

in effectively communicating
with others
My oral presentation skills have

Strongly Disagree (1) to

improved after the client-based

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

project

96

Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

learned that inadequate oral

Strongly Agree (7)

Wu et al., 2023

communication skills can
prevent me from clearly
expressing my ideas
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

learned that writing

Strongly Agree (7)

Wu et al., 2023

communication skills are
important in study or work.
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

learned to use use digital media

Strongly Agree (7)

Wu et al., 2023

(WeChat, email, etc.) to express
my views and ideas accurately
The client-based project helps

Strongly Disagree (1) to

me to demonstrate effective

Strongly Agree (7)

Rohm et al., 2021

project management skills and
communication
Collaboration
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

The client-based project

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Kricsfalusy et al.,

encouraged and supported me to

Strongly Agree (7)

2018

develop interpersonal
(teamwork) skills

97

I learned to be an effective

Strongly Disagree (1) to

member of teamwork through

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

this client-based project
Through client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

am confident in my ability to

Strongly Agree (7)

Tsai et al., 2024

interact with a wide range of
people
The client-based project helped

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Parsons &

me develop my teamwork skills

Strongly Agree (7)

Lepkowska-White,
2009

The client-based project helped

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Parsons &

me develop my interpersonal

Strongly Agree (7)

Lepkowska-White,

skills

2009

I gained the ability to work in

Strongly Disagree (1) to

multidisciplinary teams on fast-

Strongly Agree (7)

Rohm et al., 2021

paced and complex real-world
projects
Student Feedback
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

Through client-based projects,

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Mwita et al., 2024

the skills and abilities that I

Strongly Agree (7)

possess are what employers are
looking for.

98

By doing client-based projects, I

Strongly Disagree (1) to

am generally confident of

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

success in job Interviews and
selection events
After doing client-based

Strongly Disagree (1) to

projects, I feel I could get any

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

job so long as my skills and
experience are reasonably
relevant
After doing client-based

Strongly Disagree (1) to

projects, I can easily find out

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

about opportunities in my
chosen field
Employability
Statements

Likert Scale (1-7)

Reference

Skills learned from client-based

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Gaumer, Cotleur, &

projects translate into the

Strongly Agree (7)

Arnone, 2012

International students

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Mwita et al., 2024

participating in client-based

Strongly Agree (7)

workplace, creating employees
who can collaborate, share skills
and knowledge, and
communicate their ideas
effectively

99

projects with better soft and
technical skills have a higher
chance of getting employed
Students involved in client-

Strongly Disagree (1) to

based projects possessing soft

Strongly Agree (7)

Mwita et al., 2024

skills are considered to be
confident, able to effectively
communicate with an ability to
solve work-related and nonwork-related problems
International students who

Strongly Disagree (1) to

participated in client-based

Strongly Agree (7)

Tofighi, 2022

projects believe that they
obtained higher academic
confidence, career confidence,
hard skills, and soft skills
Working with real clients helps

Strongly Disagree (1) to

students learn problem-solving

Strongly Agree (7)

McCale, 2008

skills and manage the ambiguity
Client projects serve as an

Strongly Disagree (1) to

Kramer-Simpson,

important first step for learning

Strongly Agree (7)

Newmark, & Dyke

and particularly for becoming

Ford, 2015

part of a community of practice
by recognizing an organization's
values and goals

100

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